Concurrent variable-ratio schedules: Implications for the generalized matching law

Rats' responses were reinforced on concurrent variable-ratio variable-ratio schedules in which responses on one lever incremented the ratio counter and responses on a second lever changed the schedule and correlated stimulus. The relative frequency of reinforcement was varied from .10 to .99. In one set of conditions, responding on the main lever incremented both ratio counters, but reinforcement required a response in the presence of the stimulus correlated with the ratio that had been completed. In a second set of conditions, responses on the main lever incremented only the ratio correlated with the stimulus that was currently present. When main-lever responses incremented both ratio counters, subjects distributed responding and time in a manner consistent with the generalized matching law. When responses on the main lever incremented only the schedule currently in effect, the rats responded almost exclusively on the schedule producing the higher frequency of reinforcement. These results extend the applicability of the generalized matching law to dependent ratio schedules.     

Applying processing trees in social psychology

Processing tree models offer a powerful research framework by which the contributions of cognitive processes to a task can be separated and quantified. The present article reviews a number of applications of processing tree models in the domain of social psychology in order to illustrate the steps to be taken in developing and validating a given model and applying it to the measurement and comparison of processes across experimental and quasi-experimental conditions. Process dissociation models are discussed as special cases of processing tree models. Crucial assumptions of processing tree models are considered and methods to overcome violations of such assumptions are reviewed. In addition to the application of processing tree models for the analysis of social and cognitive processes, their value is also discussed for the elicitation of truthful responses to socially sensitive questions.     

前意识模型的提出和大学生情绪——心境的实验研究

本文首先介绍了内隐记忆研究的过程分离程序（ＰＤＰ）的独立模型和附着模型,提出了前意识模型的基本构想。实验以５０名大学生为被拭,考察了大学生的情绪－心境状况及其性别差异。结果表明：大学生对不同维度的情绪性词汇的敏感性有所不同;前意识模型以前意识为中介,可反映意识与无意识的动态关系。     

意识与无意识加法运算过程的分离──考察加工水平与外周预提示的作用

使用Ｊａｃｏｂｙ的过程分离程序,定量地估计了意识与无意识加法运算过程对后来迫选作业的贡献。结果表明：１．即使是在排除测验中,被试有时也要显著超过基线地选择靶数字,这一结果无疑为无意识加法运算过程的存在提供了有力的证据;２．加工水平和外周预提示影响对Ｃ值的估计,但并不影响对Ｕ值的估计。这证明加工水平与外周预提示均是分离意识与无意识加法运算过程的重要因素。     

Rule-Consequentialism's Dilemma

This paper examines recent attempts to defend Rule-Consequentialism against a traditional objection. That objection takes the form of a dilemma, that either Rule-Consequentialism collapses into Act-Consequentialism or it is incoherent. Attempts to avoid this dilemma based on the idea that using RC has better results than using AC are rejected on the grounds that they conflate the ideas of a criterion of rightness and a decision procedure. Other strategies, Brad Hooker's prominent amongst them, involving the thought that RC need contain no overarching concern to maximize the good are acknowledged to avoid the original dilemma, but lead to further problems of motivating and justifying RC in the absence of such a concern. The paper argues that Hooker's attempt to deal with these problems by using a 'Reflective Equilibrium plus method is unsuccessful.     

意志与意识对记忆的交互影响

运用加工分离程序,研究了编码和提取时不同意志和意识水平对部首补笔的影响。结果发现：除编码阶段和提取阶段的意志之间不存在交互作用之外,同一阶段和（或）不同阶段的意志和（或）意识之间均存在显著的或非常显著的交互作用。研究表明：意志和意识两个因素对记忆存在复杂影响,在记忆研究中应关注意志因素的作用。研究结果验证了记忆的状态依存性。     

A follow-up developmental study of hypothesis behavior among mentally retarded and nonretarded children

To clarify the roles of IQ and mental age (MA) in hypothesis behavior, MA-matched subjects at three levels of IQ (70, 100, and 130) and three levels of MA ($\text{5}\text{1}\text{2}\text{, 7}\text{1}\text{2}\text{,}\text{and}\text{9}\text{1}\text{2}\text{years}$) received blank-trial discrimination learning problems using procedures designed to discourage position-oriented responding. With position responding discouraged, earlier findings were contradicted in that no hypothesis measure showed a main effect of IQ. This suggest that previously reported IQ group differences in hypothesis behavior may not reflect cognitive deficits inherently linked to low IQ, but instead may reflect the influence of specific methodological factors. The finding and interpretation are consistent with Zigler's (American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 536–556) “developmental” theory of retardation and inconsistent with the general “difference” position. In additional findings, the predictions that subjects at all three MA levels would use hypotheses, and that retarded children from special-education classes would use hypotheses more often than retarded children “mainstreamed” in classes for the nonretarded were confirmed.     

INCREASING SPONTANEOUS VERBAL RESPONDING IN AUTUSTIC CHILDREN USING A TIME DELAY PROCEDURE

One oft-cited problem with teaching speech skills to autistic children isthe failure of the speech to be spontaneous. That is, the children's speech often remains underthe control of the verbal behavior of others rather than underthe control of other nonverbal referents inthe environment. We investigatedthe effectiveness of a time delay procedure to increasethe spontaneous speech of seven autistic children. Initially, the experimenter presented a desired object (e.g., cookie) and immediately modeledthe appropriate response “I want (cookie).” Gradually, asthe child imitatedthe vocalization, the experimenter increasedthe time between presentation of the object andthe modeled vocalization in an attempt to transfer stimulus control of the child's vocalization fromthe experimenter's model tothe object. Results indicated that allthe children learned to request items spontaneously and generalized this behavior across settings, people, situations, and to objects which had not been taught. These results are discussed in relation tothe literature on spontaneous speech, prompting, and generalization.     

TEACHERS' GENERALIZED USE OF DELAY AS A STIMULUS CONTROL PROCEDURE TO INCREASE LANGUAGE USE IN HANDICAPPED CHILDREN

In Experiment 1, classroom teachers were taught to delay their offers of help in naturally occurring situations, and thereby to provide additional opportunities for language use by six moderately retarded language-delayed children. The teachers introduced this delay technique in a multiple-baseline design across the six children. As delays were used, child verbal initiations increased. Follow-up assessment showed that teachers were maintaining greater than baseline levels of the delay technique after 10 weeks. Experiment 2 replicated the findings of Experiment 1, and included a more thorough maintenance assessment, while focusing on teachers' generalization of the delay technique. Teachers were found to generalize their use of delay to 56% of their monitored untaught opportunities. The two experiments show that (a) the delay technique is quick to teach and simple to implement, (b) delays do provide opportunities for children to initiate, (c) teachers can generalize their use of delay to novel self-selected situations, and (d) teachers can maintain their use of delays over time.     

Determinants of contrast in the signal-key procedure: Evidence against additivity theory

Two experiments are reported that challenge the interpretation of previous results with the signal-key procedure, in which the discriminative stimuli are located on a response key different from the key associated with the operant response requirement. Experiment 1 replicated the procedure of Keller (1974), and found that contrast effects on the operant key occurred reliably for only one of four subjects. High rates to the signal key initially occurred for only one subject, but modifications of the procedure produced substantial rates to the signal key for all subjects. In all cases, however, signal-key behavior was greatly reduced by the addition of a changeover delay which prevented reinforcement within 2 seconds of the last peck to the signal key, suggesting that signal-key pecking was maintained primarily by adventitious reinforcement. Experiment 2 modified the signal-key procedure by using three response keys, so that the discriminative stimuli on the signal key controlled different responses during all phases of training. With this modification, reliable contrast effects on the operant key occurred for all subjects, suggesting that the failure to find contrast in previous studies has been due to the confounding of changes in the discrimination requirements with changes in relative rate of reinforcement. The results challenge the additivity theory of contrast, and suggest that “elicited” behavior plays a minor role, if any, in the determination of contrast effects in multiple schedules.