中医文化的二元结构对中医医院管理的意义

中医文化的二元结构是指其所反映的时代特征与其历史局限性的对立统一,主要体现在三个方面：封闭性与开放性的对立统一、排斥性与包容性的对立统一、稳定性与离散性的对立统一。这种二元结构对中医医院管理而言,即形成了明显的文化优势,也因某些积习而设置了文化障碍。     

Event structure as a basis of semantic processing of familiar metaphors

In this paper I propose a model of metaphor interpretation that would account for the possibility that semantic processing of familiar metaphors no longer go through the sequential steps of alignment and projection, but may rather be established upon schematic semantic units allowing faster processing. The proposition is grounded on the notion that metaphors are formed based on peoples’ perception of what is typically associated with entities. It is suggested that in its most abstract form, these associations are essentially events, analyzed in terms of event structure.     

On scaling models applied to data from several groups

Statistical methods are presented to facilitate a more complete analysis of results obtained when a scaling model is applied to data from two or more groups. These methods can be used to (a) compare the corresponding estimated latent distributions obtained using the scaling model applied to the different groups, (b) compare the corresponding estimated item reliabilities (or item response error rates) for the different groups, and (c) test whether the scaling model applied to the several groups can be replaced by a more parsimonious scaling model that includes various homogeneity constraints (i.e., constraints that describe which parameters in the model are the same for the several groups). Various kinds of scaling models are considered here in the multiple-group context.Support for this research was provided in part by the National Science Foundation, to Clogg by Grant No. SES-7823759 and to Goodman by Grant No. SES-8303838. Clogg and Goodman were Fellows at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences when part of the research was done, with financial support provided in part by National Science Foundation grant BNS-8011494 to the Center. The authors are indebted to Mark P. Becker and James W. Shockey for helpful comments.     

An alternative two stage least squares (2SLS) estimator for latent variable equations

The Maximum-likelihood estimator dominates the estimation of general structural equation models. Noniterative, equation-by-equation estimators for factor analysis have received some attention, but little has been done on such estimators for latent variable equations. I propose an alternative 2SLS estimator of the parameters in LISREL type models and contrast it with the existing ones. The new 2SLS estimator allows observed and latent variables to originate from nonnormal distributions, is consistent, has a known asymptotic covariance matrix, and is estimable with standard statistical software. Diagnostics for evaluating instrumental variables are described. An empirical example illustrates the estimator. I gratefully acknowledge support for this research from the Sociology Program of the National Science Foundation (SES-9121564) and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, California. This paper was presented at the Interdisciplinary Consortium for Statistical Applications at Indiana University at Bloomington (March 2, 1994) and at the RMD Conference on Causal Modeling at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana (March 3-5, 1994).     

Maximization of sums of quotients of quadratic forms and some generalizations

Monotonically convergent algorithms are described for maximizing six (constrained) functions of vectors x, or matricesX with columns x₁, ..., x _r . These functions are h₁(x)= _k (xA _kx)(xC _kx)^–1, H₁(X)= _k tr (XA _k X)(XC _k X)^–1, h₁(X)= _{k l} (x _l A _kx _l ) (x _l C _kx _l )^–1 withX constrained to be columnwise orthonormal, h₂(x)= _k (xA _kx)²(xC _kx)^–1 subject to xx=1, H₂(X)= _k tr(XA _kX)(XA_kX)(XC_kX)^–1 subject toXX=I, and h₂(X)= _{k l} (x _l A _kx _l )² (x _l C _kX _l )^–1 subject toXX=I. In these functions the matricesC _k are assumed to be positive definite. The matricesA _k can be arbitrary square matrices. The general formulation of the functions and the algorithms allows for application of the algorithms in various problems that arise in multivariate analysis. Several applications of the general algorithms are given. Specifically, algorithms are given for reciprocal principal components analysis, binormamin rotation, generalized discriminant analysis, variants of generalized principal components analysis, simple structure rotation for one of the latter variants, and set component analysis. For most of these methods the algorithms appear to be new, for the others the existing algorithms turn out to be special cases of the newly derived general algorithms.This research has been made possible by a fellowship from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences to the author. The author is obliged to Jos ten Berge for stimulating this research and for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper.     

Perceptual unit formation in simple motion patterns

The present study investigated the proximal constraints that determine perceptual unit formation under minimal stimulus conditions. Projections of three moving dots, which could form two possible two-dot configurations, were presented to naive observers. In a forced-choice situation, their task was to report which two-dot configuration was perceived as a distinct perceptual unit. The results showed that common motions (arbitrary translations and rigid rotations in the frontoparallel plane) have stronger grouping power as compared to different relative motions (expansions/contractions, or simultaneous expansions/contractions and deformations in the frontoparallel plane). It was found that proximal changes of distances between elements in two-dot structures reduce grouping power. Changes of proximal directions, however, did not affect unit formation in two-dot structures at all. The effect of vector algebraic combinations on grouping power in three-dot strutures was also investigated. Evidently, visual vector analysis splits up motion combinations into their constituents, and in come cases this contributes to additive effects.     

教师解决结构不良问题策略的发展研究

以成人期个体解决结构不良问题的有关认知加工理论为框架,运用多因素设计的方法,对９０名不同年龄的教师在解决教育和教学实践中常见的三种冲突情景下使用策略的情况进行了探讨。结果发现,教师在解决结构不良问题时,从总体上说不存在年龄差异,但在处理教师与教师、教师与家长等较为复杂的冲突问题时,随着年龄的增长,更趋向于使用元认知和认识论认知策略。该研究对教师培训中如何根据不同年龄特点来进行教育机智训练有一定的理论意义和应用价值。     

Three-mode orthomax rotation

Factor analysis and principal components analysis (PCA) are often followed by an orthomax rotation to rotate a loading matrix to simple structure. The simple structure is usually defined in terms of the simplicity of the columns of the loading matrix. In Three-mode PCA, rotational freedom of the so called core (a three-way array relating components for the three different modes) can be used similarly to find a simple structure of the core. Simple structure of the core can be defined with respect to all three modes simultaneously, possibly with different emphases on the different modes. The present paper provides a fully flexible approach for orthomax rotation of the core to simple structure with respect to three modes simultaneously. Computationally, this approach relies on repeated (two-way) orthomax applied to supermatrices containing the frontal, lateral or horizontal slabs, respectively. The procedure is illustrated by means of a number of exemplary analyses. As a by-product, application of the Three-mode Orthomax procedures to two-way arrays is shown to reveal interesting relations with and interpretations of existing two-way simple structure rotation techniques.This research has been made possible by a fellowship from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences to the author. The author is obliged to Jos ten Berge and two anonymous reviewers for useful comments on an earlier version of this paper.     

Effect analysis and causation in linear structural equation models

This paper considers total and direct effects in linear structural equation models. Adopting a causal perspective that is implicit in much of the literature on the subject, the paper concludes that in many instances the effects do not admit the interpretations imparted in the literature. Drawing a distinction between concomitants and factors, the paper concludes that a concomitant has neither total nor direct effects on other variables. When a variable is a factor and one or more intervening variables are concomitants, the notion of a direct effect is not causally meaningful. Even when the notion of a direct effect is meaningful, the usual estimate of this quantity may be inappropriate. The total effect is usually interpreted as an equilibrium multiplier. In the case where there are simultaneity relations among the dependent variables in tghe model, the results in the literature for the total effects of dependent variables on other dependent variables are not equilibrium multipliers, and thus, the usual interpretation is incorrect. To remedy some of these deficiencies, a new effect, the total effect of a factorX on an outcomeY, holding a set of variablesF constant, is defined. When defined, the total and direct effects are a special case of this new effect, and the total effect of a dependent variable on a dependent variable is an equilibrium multiplier.For helpful comments, I am grateful to G. Arminger, K. Bollen, W. Faris, R. m. Hauser, T. Petersen, three anonymous Psychometrikas reviewers, and the Editor. For computational assistance, I am grateful to B. D. Kim.     

Pseudo maximum likelihood estimation and a test for misspecification in mean and covariance structure models

Using the theory of pseudo maximum likelihood estimation the asymptotic covariance matrix of maximum likelihood estimates for mean and covariance structure models is given for the case where the variables are not multivariate normal. This asymptotic covariance matrix is consistently estimated without the computation of the empirical fourth order moment matrix. Using quasi-maximum likelihood theory a Hausman misspecification test is developed. This test is sensitive to misspecification caused by errors that are correlated with the independent variables. This misspecification cannot be detected by the test statistics currently used in covariance structure analysis.For helpful comments on a previous draft of the paper we are indebted to Kenneth A. Bollen, Ulrich L. Küsters, Michael E. Sobel and the anonymous reviewers of Psychometrika. For partial research support, the first author wishes to thank the Department of Sociology at the University of Arizona, where he was a visiting professor during the fall semester 1987.