The EffectLiteR Approach for Analyzing Average and Conditional Effects

We present a framework for estimating average and conditional effects of a discrete treatment variable on a continuous outcome variable, conditioning on categorical and continuous covariates. Using the new approach, termed the EffectLiteR approach, researchers can consider conditional treatment effects given values of all covariates in the analysis and various aggregates of these conditional treatment effects such as average effects, effects on the treated, or aggregated conditional effects given values of a subset of covariates. Building on structural equation modeling, key advantages of the new approach are (1) It allows for latent covariates and outcome variables; (2) it permits (higher order) interactions between the treatment variable and categorical and (latent) continuous covariates; and (3) covariates can be treated as stochastic or fixed. The approach is illustrated by an example, and open source software EffectLiteR is provided, which makes a detailed analysis of effects conveniently accessible for applied researchers.     

A Comparison of ML,WLSMV, and Bayesian Methods for Multilevel Structural Equation Models in Small Samples: A Simulation Study

Multilevel structural equation models are increasingly applied in psychological research. With increasing model complexity, estimation becomes computationally demanding, and small sample sizes pose further challenges on estimation methods relying on asymptotic theory. Recent developments of Bayesian estimation techniques may help to overcome the shortcomings of classical estimation techniques. The use of potentially inaccurate prior information may, however, have detrimental effects, especially in small samples. The present Monte Carlo simulation study compares the statistical performance of classical estimation techniques with Bayesian estimation using different prior specifications for a two-level SEM with either continuous or ordinal indicators. Using two software programs (Mplus and Stan), differential effects of between- and within-level sample sizes on estimation accuracy were investigated. Moreover, it was tested to which extent inaccurate priors may have detrimental effects on parameter estimates in categorical indicator models. For continuous indicators, Bayesian estimation did not show performance advantages over ML. For categorical indicators, Bayesian estimation outperformed WLSMV solely in case of strongly informative accurate priors. Weakly informative inaccurate priors did not deteriorate performance of the Bayesian approach, while strong informative inaccurate priors led to severely biased estimates even with large sample sizes. With diffuse priors, Stan yielded better results than Mplus in terms of parameter estimates.     

Analyzing Complex Treatment Effects in Nonrandomized Observational Studies: The Case of Retention of Students in Grade

Should low-achieving students be promoted to the next grade or be retained (held back) in the prior grade? This special section presents a discussion of the application of marginal structural models to the challenging problem of estimating the effect of promotion versus retention in grade on math scores in elementary school. Vandecandelaere, De Fraine, Van Damme, and Vansteelandt provide a didactic presentation of the marginal structural modeling approach, noting retention is a time-varying treatment because promoted low-achieving students may be retained in a subsequent grade. Steiner, Park, and Kim's commentary presents a detailed analysis of the treatment effects being estimated in same-age versus same-grade comparisons from the perspective of the potential outcomes model. Reshetnyak, Cham, and Kim's commentary clarifies the conditions under which same-age versus same-grade comparisons might be preferred; they also identify methods of further improving the estimation of retention effects. In their rejoinder, Vandecandelaere and Vansteelandt discuss tradeoffs in comparing the promoted and retained groups and highlight sensitivity analysis as a method of probing the robustness of treatment effect estimates. Our hope is that this combined didactic presentation and critical evaluation will encourage researchers to add marginal structural models to their methodological toolkits.     

Counsellors' focus on competitive employment for people with severe mental illness: an application of the theory of planned behaviour in vocational rehabilitation programmes

Although the evidence-based Individual Placement and Support programme highlights the importance of the vocational rehabilitation (VR) counsellors' focus on competitive employment during career counselling, studies have shown that counsellors do not always target such jobs. This study examines which determinants affect the counsellors' intentions using an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Cross-sectional data of 263 VR counsellors of three public employment services were analysed using structural equation modelling. A path model comprising attitudes, prior behaviour, and subjective and moral norms explained 69% of the variance in intentions. The findings indicate that counsellors focus more on competitive employment when they (1) view the placement in a competitive job as positive, (2) experience support and (3) have prior relevant experiences.     

What are the combined effects of negative emotions and illness cognitions on self-care in people with type 2 diabetes? A longitudinal structural equation model

Objective: To explore whether negative emotions mediate the effect of diabetes cognitions on diabetes self-care and conversely whether diabetes cognitions mediate the effect of negative emotions on diabetes self-care.

Design: Longitudinal observational study in adults with type 2 diabetes.

Main outcome measures: Self-reported depression and anxiety (Diabetes Wellbeing Questionnaire), cognitions (Illness Perceptions Questionnaire-Revised; Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire), and diabetes self-care (Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities Scale) were completed at baseline and six months. Analyses used structural equation modelling.

Results: Baseline medication concerns were associated with elevated symptoms of depression and anxiety at follow-up, but emotions did not mediate medication concern’s effect on diabetes self-care. Baseline depression and anxiety symptoms were associated with specific diabetes cognitions over time, but these cognition domains did not mediate emotion’s effect on diabetes self-care. Personal control remained independent of emotions and was associated with diabetes self-care over time.

Conclusions: Negative emotions did not act directly or alongside cognitions to influence diabetes self-care. The reciprocal relationship between diabetes cognitions and emotions suggests cognitive restructuring, in addition to other mood management intervention techniques would likely improve the emotional wellbeing of adults with type 2 diabetes. Likewise, personal control beliefs are likely important intervention targets for improving self-care.     

Using self-determination theory to understand motivation for walking: Instrument development and model testing using Bayesian structural equation modelling

ObjectiveThe motivational processes underpinning walking behaviour are not well understood. This study aimed to develop walking-specific motivation measures drawn from self-determination theory (SDT), assess the psychometric properties of the measures, incorporating Baysesian structural equation modelling (BSEM), and examine how these variables relate to walking behaviour.MethodParticipants (n = 298; mean age = 41.69; S.D. = 11.06; male = 57) completed the Behavioural Regulations in Walking Questionnaire (BRWQ), Psychological Needs Satisfaction for Walking Scale (PNSWS) and the IPAQ-long form, from which measures of workplace, transport and leisure walking were extracted. BSEM was used to test the hypothesized factor structures of the BRWQ and PNSWS. Internal reliabilities were assessed using the composite reliability coefficient. Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed by examining the relationships between the variables in relation to established theory.ResultsBSEM showed excellent fit for the BRWQ and PNSWS measurement models. The scales demonstrated good internal consistency. The associations within and between the BRWQ and PNSWS subscales were generally as expected. The relationship between the BRWQ subscales and walking for transport and leisure were also generally as expected, but there were no significant relationships for walking at work. Two PNSWS subscales were significantly related to walking for leisure, but no significant relationships were evident for walking for transport and at work.ConclusionsThere is preliminary evidence for the acceptable psychometric properties of instruments to measure SDT constructs in walking, and the findings highlight the advantages of BSEM. The findings also suggest that the motivational processes underpinning walking may vary by type of walking.     

Understanding Thai Families: A Cultural Context for Therapists Using a Structural Approach

This article describes six cultural influences that affect Thai families: religious beliefs, rural and urban considerations, family relationships, societal values, masculine and feminine roles, and sexuality. A case study of a Thai family struggling with these issues and interventions from a structural therapy perspective is presented.     

Structured propostions and sentence structure

It is argued that taken together, two widely held claims ((i) sentences express structured propositions whose structures are functions of the structures of sentences expressing them; and (ii) senteces have underlying structures that are the input to semantic interpretation) suggest a simple, plausible theory of propositional structure. According to this theory, the structures of propositions are the same as the structures of the syntactic inputs to semantics they are expressed by. The theory is defended against a variety of objections.I have benefitted from discussions with Michael Jubien, Michacl Liston, Paul Teller, Howard Wettstein, Mark Wilson and especially David Copp. The comments of Mark Richard and an anonymous referee for Journal of Philosophical Logic on an earlier draft resulted in a much improved paper. Various circumstances resulted in this paper appearing after King [1995], though the latter was written later and amends the present view in several ways. See notes 9, 13, 15 and 33 of King [1995].     

结构方程模型的应用及分析策略

差不多所有心理、教育、社会等概念,均难以直接准确测量,结构方程（SEM,Struc－tulalEquationModelling）提供一个处理测量误差的方法,采用多个指标去反映潜在变量,也令估计整个模型因子间关系,较传统回归方法更为准确合理。本文主要用一系列有关学习动机的虚拟例子,指出每个问题的主要分析策略,以展示SEM在教育及心理学可以应用的研究范畴。文内探讨的方法包括：验证性因素、高阶因子、路径及因果分析、多时段（multiwave）设计、单形模型（SimpleModel）、及多组比较等。     

MATURE CONTEMPLATION

Abstract. This chapter extends biogenetic structural theory to a consideration of the biopsychological principles underlying higher phases of consciousness, particularly those attained by the systematic exploration of consciousness called contemplation. The concepts of psychic energy, flow, centeredness, energy circulation, and dreambody are explored as presented in various mystical traditions, and a model of the underlying neurophysiology is presented in terms of ergotropic-trophotropic tuning. The psychophysiology of various forms of meditation together with emergent peak experiences is examined and integrated into the ergotropic-trophotropic tuning model. Structural invariance of ergotropic-trophotropic tuning as well as invariant aspects of contemplation across different cultures and associated with different symbol systems is considered. Finally the nature and implications of Void Consciousness, God Consciousness, or Abssolute Unitary Being are examined.