Knowing Is Not Enough

I consider the rule of assertion according to which knowledge is sufficient for epistemically proper assertion. I examine a counterexample to this rule recently proposed by Jennifer Lackey. I present three responses to this counterexample. The first two, I argue, highlight some flaws in the counterexample. But the third response fails. The lessons I draw from examining these three responses allow me to propose two counterexamples to the sufficiency rule that are similar to Lackey’s but avoid its problems.     

权变视角下的情绪劳动:调节变量及其作用机制

调节变量是近年来情绪劳动研究关注的重点问题之一。实证研究显示,反映员工个体特征、工作情境特征的多组变量以及文化情境对情绪劳动效应具有显著的调节作用。权变视角下的情绪劳动研究发现:(1)展现规则在组织、行业、文化三个不同水平影响个体在工作场所的情绪表达;(2)表层扮演潜在的消极效应可以借助个体内在的保护机制或通过组织管理干预被削弱、消除,甚至是转化为积极的力量;(3)深层扮演的积极效应具有较高的跨人群、跨情境稳定性;(4)文化情境对情绪劳动作用过程具有重要的约束作用。在一定条件下,情绪劳动要求、情绪劳动行为都可以成为有益于员工的组织生活要素。     

Leisure items as controls in the attention condition of functional analyses

Leisure items (e.g., games, toys) are commonly made available as controls during attention conditions of functional analyses (Ringdahl, Winborn, Andelman, & Kitsukawa, 2002). However, Ringdahl et al. raised questions about this practice. This paper reviews research that supports and conflicts with the inclusion of leisure items as controls, including a quantitative analysis of relevant articles published in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis over a 10-year period. Data reviewed suggest that practitioners may consider omitting leisure items as controls or including such items strategically based on the accumulation of assessment information.     

Contact with maternal parent and siblings affects hunting behavior,learning, and central nervous system development in spiderlings of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hogna carolinensis</Emphasis> (Araeneae: Lycosidae)

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of early experience (rearing conditions) on the central nervous system (CNS) and behavior of spiderlings of Hogna carolinensis (Lycosidae). We were interested in whether or not spiderlings that were allowed to remain in contact with their maternal parent and siblings (enriched condition, EC) would exhibit differences in CNS development or subsequent behavior when compared with those reared in isolation (impoverished condition, IC). Spiderlings emerged from their egg sacs and climbed onto the dorsal surface of their mother's abdomen where they remained until their yolk supply was depleted (5 days). They dispersed on day 6 after emergence. We compared the ability of 16-day-old EC and IC spiderlings to capture prey in a linear runway and to learn a complex maze (spatial learning). We also compared certain aspects of CNS development (brain weight, total number of brain cells, volume of central body and protocerebral neuropil) in EC and IC spiderlings. Results indicated that EC subjects are more efficient at capturing moving prey (crickets) and exhibited improved performance (significantly fewer blind alley errors) in the maze. The volume of the protocerebral neuropil in 6-day-old EC animals increased 30% over a 5-day period after emergence as compared to IC animals of the same age. The volume of the central body of EC animals increased 34.8% over the same time period. On day 6 after emergence, the weight of the protocerebrum was significantly greater in EC versus IC subjects. There were no significant effects of rearing condition (EC vs IC) or age (1- and 6-day-old spiderlings) on the total number of nerve cells in the protocerebrum, suggesting that the difference in protocerebral weight was due primarily to differences in supporting glial tissues and neuropil matrix. In conclusion, the data suggest that early contact with the maternal parent and siblings is of vital importance to CNS development in lycosid spiderlings and can influence the capacity for spatial learning as well as the ability to capture prey. Electronic Publication     

Religion and Disability: Variation in Religious Service Attendance Rates for Children with Chronic Health Conditions

Prior research consistently demonstrates greater religious involvement is associated with improved health outcomes for those with chronic health conditions. Fewer studies focus on how chronic health conditions influence religious service attendance rates and most focus on older Americans. Using three waves of a nationally representative sample of children in the United States, I test whether children with a chronic health condition never attend religious worship services at rates significantly higher than children without a condition. I also investigate variation in attendance rates across a broad range of conditions, something previously overlooked. Children with chronic health conditions are more likely to never attend religious worship services. Specifically, children with chronic health conditions that impede communication and social interaction are most likely to never attend. Despite shifts in prevalence these findings are stable over time. Implications for researchers, religious communities, families with children with chronic health conditions, and health‐care providers are discussed.     

Investigating the effect of contextual factors on driving: An experimental study

Alongside human factors, contextual factors are believed to have an ongoing and complex impact on driving outcomes. However, how and to what extent the components of context influence driving outcomes (e.g. rule violations, crash, stress, fatigue) are far beyond full understanding. The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of weather condition, lighting condition and traffic density on driving outcomes. Thirty-six volunteers were enrolled to participate into a driving simulator-based experiment. Each participant was required to complete twelve trials of simulated driving under different sets of scenarios. Driving outcome was measured by five dependent variables: frequency of speeding, frequency of lane deviations, number of correct sign recognition, completion time and workload. The results showed the frequency of speeding was significantly affected by weather condition, lighting condition and traffic density. Lighting condition had a significant effect on number of correct sign recognition. Weather condition, lighting condition and traffic density had significant effects on task completion time. Weather condition and lighting condition had significant effects on driver’s workload. The implications of the results could help traffic safety professionals better understand the risk factors that may lead to human errors during driving. Practically, countermeasures could be inspired and developed to mitigate the adverse impacts brought by driving context to minimum.     

Observational learning of tool use in children: Investigating cultural spread through diffusion chains and learning mechanisms through ghost displays

In the first of two experiments, we demonstrate the spread of a novel form of tool use across 20 “cultural generations” of child-to-child transmission. An experimentally seeded technique spread with 100% fidelity along twice as many “generations” as has been investigated in recent exploratory “diffusion” experiments of this type. This contrasted with only a single child discovering the technique spontaneously in a comparable group tested individually without any model. This study accordingly documents children’s social learning of tool use on a new, population-level scale that characterizes real-world cultural phenomena. In a second experiment, underlying social learning processes were investigated with a focus on the contrast between imitation (defined as copying actions) and emulation (defined as learning from the results of actions only). In two different “ghost” conditions, children were presented with the task used in the first experiment but now operated without sight of an agent performing the task, thereby presenting only the information used in emulation. Children in ghost conditions were less successful than those who had watched a model in action and showed variable matching to what they had seen. These findings suggest the importance of observational learning of complex tool use through imitation rather than only through emulation. Results of the two experiments are compared with those of similar experiments conducted previously with chimpanzees and are discussed in relation to the wider perspective of human culture and the influence of task complexity on social learning.     

成败情境下不同成就目标取向学生业绩表现的差异

以五、六年级小学生为被试,在设置成功与失败的情境下,考察不同成就目标取向学生业绩表现的差异。结果发现:(1)在两种情境下,掌握目标取向的学生有最高的业绩表现,失败情境下的业绩表现高于成功情境;(2)成绩接近目标取向的学生,在失败情境下的业绩表现与成功情境无显著差异,在成功情境下的业绩表现略高于成绩回避目标取向的学生,失败情境下的业绩表现高于成绩回避目标取向的学生。(3)成绩回避目标取向的学生在失败情境下的业绩表现显著低于成功情境。     

鼓励条件下幼儿提问的发展

以7所幼儿园的141名3～6岁儿童为被试,采用实验方法,探讨幼儿在8种新异刺激条件下提问的发展.结果表明:(1)3～6岁幼儿提问生成的数量随着年龄的增长而提高;(2)幼儿在对当前刺激产生陌生感或出现认知混乱时更容易生成问题;(3)立体刺激材料和平面刺激材料在引发幼儿提问生成上不存在差异;(4)3～6岁幼儿提问元认知随年龄的增长而提高.3～4岁期间是提问原因元认知快速发展时期.     

Are babies sensitive to the context of acute pain episodes? Infant distress and maternal soothing during immunization routines at 3 and 5 months of age

Ninety‐three healthy full‐term Italian infants were observed longitudinally at 3 and 5 months during routine vaccinations. Mothers' behaviour was also observed. Participants were divided into two cohorts depending on procedure of inoculation (the first cohort, n=44, showed more distress; the second cohort, n=49, showed less distress). Results indicate that babies' different levels of behavioural distress correspond to mothers' different soothing strategies. Maternal proximal soothing at 3 months predicts faster infant quieting at 5 months, but concurrent and predictive effects of maternal proximity are apparent only when level of baby distress is not too high. The study confirms the view that young babies are sensitive to the overall context of acute pain episodes, including medical procedure and maternal soothing. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.