Problem Solving Therapy

This paper describes how problem solving therapy (PST) would be applied to the treatment of Sylvia (I. Caro, 2001), a 27-year-old depressed wife and mother of three. PST involves training individuals in five major processes: problem orientation, problem definition and formulation, generation of alternatives, decision making, and solution implementation and verification. We briefly describe a problem solving model of depression that highlights the moderating nature of problem solving ability regarding the stress–depression relationship. Based on this model, we then delineate how PST can be specifically applied to Sylvia. This is followed by a brief overview of the research base supporting the efficacy of PST for depression.     

Insight problem solving in individuals with high versus low schizotypy

Insight problem solving requires restructuring of a problem space by stepping out of the framework provided by the commonly activated cognitive schemas and acquiring a new perspective on the problem. Schizotypy has been linked with loosened associative and overinclusive thinking that may be advantageous for this process. The present study tested this hypothesis and found that individuals with a high degree of schizotypy show better performance on a set of insight problems relative to individuals with low schizotypy, but not on a set of incremental problems that required focused goal-related thinking. Results support the notion that schizotypy is associated not only with enhanced abilities in creative processes involved in divergent thinking but also in creative operations during analytical problem solving.     

基于线索的顿悟问题解决:图式和表征操作的影响

对小学、初中、高中学生共270名被试在不同线索条件下解决顿悟问题T puzzle的表现进行研究,结果表明:(1)由于图式运用水平的发展,知觉定势在单一线索下对高二被试的限制作用更为明显,导致小学五年级和初中二年级被试的问题解决时间短于高中二年级;(2)由于表征操作能力发展水平的限制,增大需操作表征数目的线索不利于五年级被试的问题解决;较高的表征操作能力发展水平使得高二被试在多重线索下有更好的解决成绩;(3)与图式相关的线索并不能有效提高儿童解决顿悟问题的效率。     

解答加减文字题中情境复杂性对问题难度的影响

过去人们基于语言复杂性探讨加减文字题的难度成因,本研究将探讨情境复杂性对问题难度的影响。被试为北京市一城区小学二年级共108名学生（男52,女56）,平均年龄8岁4个月。采用2(问题类型：“给”问题和“拿”问题)×2(事件类型：增多事件和减少事件)混合设计。对于“给”问题,增多题中各语句的主语不一致,减少题中一致,对于“拿”问题则相反。根据语言复杂性解释,因为各语句的主语一致有利于加工,“给”问题有减少题加工优势,“拿”问题有增多题加工优势;根据情境复杂性解释,因为减少情境有利于加工,两类问题均有减少题加工优势。实验表明不论“给”问题还是“拿”问题,均有减少题的加工优势,支持情境复杂性解释     

加减文字题解决研究概述

加减文字题指应用加减法运算解答的简单数学应用题。基本类型有合并题、变化题和比较题。人们主要采用四种方法研究解题过程：解答问题、回忆和构造问题、建立计算机模型和眼动记录。过去研究发现语义类型、年龄、难以理解的词句、问题陈述的简约性、题材个人化、问题陈述结构、数量大小、未知集类型和解答问题的方式等因素显著影响解题过程。人们对解题过程提出了两种理论模型,一是数学知识应用模型,一是语言理解模型     

Reciprocal and complementary sibling interactions,relationship quality and socio‐emotional problem solving

Associations between reciprocal and complementary sibling interactions, sibling relationship quality, and children's socio‐emotional problem solving were examined in 40 grade 5–6 children (M age = 11.5 years) from middle class, Caucasian, Canadian families using a multi‐method approach (i.e. interviews, self‐report questionnaires, daily diary checklist, narrative task). Findings demonstrated that reciprocal sibling interactions were positively associated with warmth, mutual esteem, happy daily exchanges, and negatively related to rivalry and dominance, whereas complementary interactions were positively related to upsetting daily exchanges. Further, reciprocal and complementary interactions differed significantly in relation to several relationship qualities, with reciprocal interactions emerging as a significantly stronger correlate of happy exchanges. Only reciprocal interactions were positively correlated with socio‐emotional problem solving. Finally, birth order moderated the negative association of reciprocal interactions with rivalry and dominance and the positive association with socio‐emotional problem solving. In each case, the effect was stronger for younger members of the sibling dyad. Findings are discussed in light of recent theory on the sibling relationship and children's development. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spatial visualization in physics problem solving

Three studies were conducted to examine the relation of spatial visualization to solving kinematics problems that involved either predicting the two-dimensional motion of an object, translating from one frame of reference to another, or interpreting kinematics graphs. In Study 1, 60 physics-naíve students were administered kinematics problems and spatial visualization ability tests. In Study 2, 17 (8 high- and 9 low-spatial ability) additional students completed think-aloud protocols while they solved the kinematics problems. In Study 3, the eye movements of fifteen (9 high- and 6 low-spatial ability) students were recorded while the students solved kinematics problems. In contrast to high-spatial students, most low-spatial students did not combine two motion vectors, were unable to switch frames of reference, and tended to interpret graphs literally. The results of the study suggest an important relationship between spatial visualization ability and solving kinematics problems with multiple spatial parameters.     

Example-based learning: New theoretical perspectives and use-inspired advances to a contemporary instructional approach

Decades of research has shown that example-based learning is an effective instructional strategy for learning new skills. The field of learning from examples is seeing a shift in focus towards more innovative and use-inspired research, in part because the use of examples for informal and formal learning purposes has mushroomed. This special issue comprises a set of eight papers in which students learned a procedural skill from worked examples or modeling examples. Each study characterizes a recent development towards more innovative example-based learning research. These developments are: (a) the integration of social-cognitive and cognitive example research, (b) the integration of example-based learning and analogical reasoning research, (c) the extension of traditional Cognitive Load Theory effects, (d) a greater focus on learning from (productive) errors, and (e) more research on individual differences. This special issue concludes with insightful commentary articles written by Prof. Dr. Katharina Scheiter and Prof. Dr. Richard Mayer.     

Beyond Dyadic Coordination: Multimodal Behavioral Irregularity in Triads Predicts Facets of Collaborative Problem Solving

We hypothesize that effective collaboration is facilitated when individuals and environmental components form a synergy where they work together and regulate one another to produce stable patterns of behavior, or regularity, as well as adaptively reorganize to form new behaviors, or irregularity. We tested this hypothesis in a study with 32 triads who collaboratively solved a challenging visual computer programming task for 20 min following an introductory warm‐up phase. Multidimensional recurrence quantification analysis was used to examine fine‐grained (i.e., every 10 s) collective patterns of regularity across team members' speech rate, body movement, and team interaction with the shared user interface. We found that teams exhibited significant patterns of regularity as compared to shuffled baselines, but there were no systematic trends in regularity across time. We also found that periods of regularity were associated with a reduction in overall behavior. Notably, the production of irregular behavior predicted expert‐coded metrics of collaborative activity, such as teams' ability to construct shared knowledge and effectively negotiate and coordinate execution of solutions, net of overall behavioral production and behavioral self‐similarity. Our findings support the theory that groups can interact to form interpersonal synergies and indicate that information about system‐level dynamics is a viable way to understand and predict effective collaborative processes.     

Younger apes and human children plan their moves in a maze task

Planning defined as the predetermination of a sequence of actions towards some goal is crucial for complex problem solving. To shed light on the evolution of executive functions, we investigated the ontogenetic and phylogenetic origins of planning. Therefore, we presented all four great apes species (N = 12) as well as 4- and 5-year-old human preschoolers (N = 24) with a vertical maze task. To gain a reward placed on the uppermost level of the maze, subjects had to move the reward to the bottom through open gaps situated at each level of the maze. In total, there were ten gaps located over three of the maze’s levels, and free passage through these gaps could be flexibly blocked using multiple traps. Due to the decision tree design of the maze, the subjects had to plan their actions depending on the trap configuration up to two steps ahead to successfully retrieve the reward. We found that (1) our measure of planning was negatively correlated with age in nonhuman apes, (2) younger apes as well as 5-year-old children planned their moves up to two steps ahead whereas 4-year-olds were limited to plan one step ahead, and (3) similar performance but different underlying limitations between apes and children. Namely, while all species of nonhuman apes were limited by a lack of motor control, human children exhibited a shortage in shifting their attention across a sequence of subgoals.