Maintenance of responding by squirrel monkeys under a concurrent shock-postponement, fixed-interval shock-presentation schedule.

A chain-pulling response was initially developed under a shock-postponement (avoidance) schedule with two squirrel monkeys. Few responses occurred on a lever where responding initially had no scheduled consequence or, subsequently, when a 3-minute fixed-interval shock-presentation schedule was concurrently arranged for lever responses. Appropriate rates and patterns of lever responding developed and were later maintained under the fixed-interval 3-minute shock-presentation schedule alone when the chain and shock-postponement schedule were removed. When both the shock-postponement and shock-presentation schedules were again simultaneously in effect, steady rates of chain pulling were maintained by the shock-postponement schedule and positively accelerated rates and patterns were maintained on the lever by the shock-presentation schedule. Response rates under both schedules were directly related to shock intensity. A history of exposure to a shock-postponement schedule, even though with a topographically different response and manipulandum, was sufficient for the development and eventual maintenance of responding by the presentation of shock. Further, differential performances can be maintained simultaneously by the presentation and postponement of electric shock.     

Avoidance based on shock intensity reduction with no change in shock probability

Rats were trained on a free-operant avoidance procedure in which shock intensity was controlled by interresponse time. Shocks were random at a density of about 10 shocks per minute. Shock probability was response independent. As long as interresponse times remained less than the limit in effect, any shocks received were at the lower of two intensities (0.75 mA). Whenever interresponse times exceeded the limit, any shocks received were at the higher intensity (1.6 mA). The initial limit of 15 seconds was decreased in 3-second steps to either 6 or 3 seconds. All animals lever pressed to avoid higher intensity shock. As the interresponse time limit was reduced, the response rate during the lower intensity shock and the proportion of brief interresponse times increased. Substantial warmup effects were evident, particularly at the shorter interresponse-time limits. Shock intensity reduction without change in shock probability was effective in the acquisition and maintenance of avoidance responding, as well as in differentiation of interresponse times. This research suggests limitations on the generality of a safety signal interpretation of avoidance conditioning.     

Matching in concurrent variable-interval avoidance schedules

After pretraining with multiple variable-interval avoidance schedules, two rats were exposed to a series of concurrent variable-interval avoidance schedules. Responses on two levers cancelled delivery of electric shocks arranged according to two independent variable-interval schedules. The ratio of responses and time spent on the two levers approximately matched the ratio of shocks avoided on each. Matching to the number of shocks received was not obtained. Concurrent variable-interval avoidance can therefore be added to the group of positive and negative reinforcement schedules that can be expressed in the quantitative framework of the matching law.     

SUPPRESSIVE AND FACILITATIVE EFFECTS OF SHOCK INTENSITY AND INTERRESPONSE TIMES FOLLOWED BY SHOCK

Although response‐dependent shock often suppresses responding, response facilitation can occur. In two experiments, we examined the suppressive and facilitative effects of shock by manipulating shock intensity and the interresponse times that produced shock. Rats' lever presses were reinforced on a variable‐interval 40‐s schedule of food presentation. Shock followed either long or short interresponse times. Shock intensity was raised from 0.05 mA to 0.4 mA or 0.8 mA. Overall, shock contingent on long interresponse times punished long interresponse times and increased response rates. Shock contingent on short interresponse times punished short interresponse times and decreased response rates. In Experiment 1, raising the range of interresponse times that produced shock enhanced these effects. In Experiment 2, the effects of shock intensity depended on the interresponse times that produced shock. When long interresponse times produced shock, low intensities increased response rates. High intensities decreased response rates. When short interresponse times produced shock, high shock intensities punished short interresponse times and decreased response rates more than low intensities. The results may explain why punishment procedures occasionally facilitate responding and establish parameters for future studies of punishment.     

体外冲击波与传统方法治疗腰椎间盘突出症疗效比较

比较放散式体外冲击波与传统保守治疗腰椎间盘突出症的临床疗效及生命质量评价。对2010年6月至fi013年6月收治且获得随访的257例腰椎间盘突出症患者进行分析,其中男139例,女118例。根据治疗方式不同随机分为两组,并在治疗前后应用日本骨科学会（JOA）下腰痛评分法及视觉模拟评分（VAS）进行疗效评价,应用健康调查评分量表SF-36进行生活质量评价。对患者进行随访1周～12周,平均（10．0±3．4）周,治疗组治疗后2周和4周VAS评分低于对照组,治疗后1周、2周及4周JOA评分高于对照组,治疗后4周、8周和12周的生理机能、生理职能、总体健康、情感职能和躯体疼痛得分高于对照组,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。放散式体外冲击波治疗腰椎间盘突出症疗效较好,并能够较好地提高患者的生活质量。     

Influence of the role of a partner on anxiety due to a physically threatening situation

This study aimed to examine the influence of the presence of a partner in terms of affiliation level and role on anxiety in a physically threatening situation.

In the first experiment, nine male subjects waited alone for the electric shock, and the other nine subjects waited with their partner.

In the second experiment, 36 female subjects were assigned to four experimental groups by the difference of the role of a partner (coactor or audience) and the affiliation level of a partner (friend or stranger), and subjects waited for the electric shock with their partner.

It was found that anxiety of subjects decreased when the partner was a coactor and/or a friend. It was suggested that these two functioned differently in anxiety reduction in a physically threatening situation.     

改革开放以来我国文化震荡的特点研究

采用自编问卷对全国各地区30岁及以上的各类被试1555名进行文化震荡调查,结果发现:(1)总体而言,改革开放以来几乎所有的文化事件对人们造成的影响都是积极的;(2)各类文化事件的主观影响均存在明显的年龄差异,总体上,成年中期感受到最积极的影响,成年晚期感受到最消极的影响;(3)各类文化事件的主观影响上均存在显著的地域差异,总体上,东部地区的被试感受到最积极的影响,中西部地区感受到最消极的影响;(4)受过高等教育的被试在物质文化事件、行为文化事件及总体上的感受要比受教育程度较低的被试更积极。     

Predator videos and electric shock function as punishers for zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are a promising animal model for studying the effects of gene–environment interactions on behavior. Two experiments were conducted to assess punishment effects of presenting predator videos (Indian leaf fish; Nandus nandus) and electric shock on operant approach responses in zebrafish. In Experiment 1, the predator video and shock stimuli were presented upon a response maintained by a single variable‐interval schedule of food reinforcement in different groups of fish. In Experiment 2, the predator video and shock stimuli were presented upon one of two response alternatives maintain by concurrently available variable‐interval schedules of food reinforcement in different groups of fish. Responding decreased when the predator video and shock stimuli were presented relative to their absence in both experiments. Moreover, responding on an unpunished alternative did not reliably decrease in Experiment 2. These results indicate that the decrease in responding resulted from the punishment contingency rather than from elicited species‐specific defense responses or conditioned avoidance. Thus, the predator video and electric shock functioned as punishers of operant behavior for zebrafish. Identifying punishers for this species could lead to research on how gene–environment interactions influence individual differences in sensitivity to punishment.     

The relation between task-relatedness of anxiety and metacognitive performance

It is well established that anxiety influences a range of cognitive processes such as cognitive control or decision-making. What is less known is how anxiety influences the metacognitive evaluations individuals make about their own performance. The present study explored the importance of task-relatedness in the relation between anxiety and metacognitive awareness. More specifically, we hypothesized that induced anxiety would affect metacognitive performance in opposite directions depending solely on whether the threat is perceived as related or unrelated to the performance. We conducted two experiments to test this hypothesis.In both studies, electric shocks were administered randomly, regardless of participant’s performance. In experiment 1, participants were informed that the shocks would be administered randomly, unrelated to performance. In experiment 2, participants were told that their metacognitive performance would influence the administration of the electric shocks (i.e. fewer electric shocks with better metacognitive performance). Our predictions were confirmed. Threat perceived as unrelated to metacognitive performance (Experiment 1) decreased metacognitive performance. Threat believed to be related to metacognitive performance resulted in improved performance (Experiment 2).These findings confirm that induced anxiety exerts a strong influence on metacognitive awareness while sparing first-order task performance. We furthermore demonstrate that the perceived relatedness of the anxiety determines whether metacognitive performance decreases or improves performance under threat.     

Gender differences in emotional and overt/covert aggressive responses to stress

We examined the role of stress exposure on gender differences in hostile (emotional and behavioral) reactions within the context of a laboratory paradigm. Aggressive behavior was indexed via the intensity (overt) and the duration (covert) of putative shocks delivered to a confederate. Half of the participants were exposed to a chronic stressor (high stress) and half were not (low stress). Participants' emotional responses were measured via self-report mood ratings before and after the experiment. Men displayed higher aggression in both stress conditions, which corresponded to their ratings of state hostility. On the other hand, women in high stress delivered lower intensity shocks, and this decreased overt aggression was positively correlated with sadness ratings. However, women did not decrease their levels of shock duration (covert aggression) under high stress and showed equivalent shock duration compared with men in high stress. These findings are discussed in terms of differential overt manifestations of distress between men and women.