Effects of group response-cost procedures on cash shortages in a small business

The effect of a group response-cost procedure (accompanied by verbal and written instruction) designed to decrease cash shortages in a small business was evaluated with a reversal design. When cash shortages were subtracted from the six employees' salaries on days in which the shortage exceeded 1% of total daily sales, the magnitude of daily shortages sharply decreased. This response-cost contingency was used only three times throughout the study, with a maximum cost of $8.70 per subject over the 41-day period. The efficacy of the procedures may be due to either increased precision in change calculations, a decreased frequency of stealing from the cash register, increased shortchanging of customers, and/or increased incidents of register under-ringing. Ethical questions relative to the utilization of group punishment procedures are raised, and it was concluded that the procedures used were more humane than commonly used alternatives.     

THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

Response deprivation and reinforcement in applied settings: A preliminary analysis

First-grade children engaged in seatwork behaviors under reinforcement schedules established according to the Premack Principle and the Response Deprivation Hypothesis. Across two experiments, schedules were presented to the children in a counter-balanced fashion which fulfilled the conditions of one, both, or neither of the hypotheses. Duration of on-task math and coloring in Experiment 1 and on-task math and reading in Experiment 2 were the dependent variables. A modified ABA-type withdrawal design, including a condition to control for the noncontingent effects of a schedule, indicated an increase of on-task instrumental responding only in those schedules where the condition of response deprivation was present but not where it was absent, regardless of the probability differential between the instrumental and contingent responses. These results were consistent with laboratory findings supporting the necessity of response deprivation for producing the reinforcement effect in single response, instrumental schedules. However, the results of the control procedure were equivocal so the contribution of the contingent relationship between the responses to the increases in instrumental behavior could not be determined. Nevertheless, these results provided tentative support for the Response Deprivation Hypothesis as a new approach to establishing reinforcement schedules while indicating the need for further research in this area. The possible advantages of this technique for applied use were identified and discussed.     

EFFECTS OF COLLATERAL PEER SUPPORTIVE BEHAVIORS WITHIN THE CLASSWIDE PEER TUTORING PROGRAM

A classwide peer tutoring procedure was implemented in an urban elementary school classroom to improve students' spelling performance. Three students combined untrained or collateral tutoring behaviors with the core behaviors initially taught. To explore the function of these natural and spontaneous behaviors, a multielement single-subject experiment with replications was conducted. Results indicated that the additional tutoring behaviors increased (a) the academic response frequencies of 3 tutees and (b) the weekly spelling achievement of 1 target tutee. The remaining class members were successfully taught and continued to use these behaviors over the final 3 weeks of the school year. These findings are discussed with regard to academic instruction, natural communities of peer reinforcement, and the social validation of intervention procedures.     

Verbal self-reports of delayed matching to sample by humans

Undergraduates participated in two experiments to develop methods for the experimental analysis of self-reports about behavior. The target behavior was the choice response in a delayed-matching-to-sample task in which monetary reinforcement was contingent upon both speed and accuracy of the choice. In Experiment 1, the temporal portion of the contingency was manipulated within each session, and the presence and absence of feedback about reinforcement was manipulated across sessions. As the time limits became stricter, target response speeds increased, but accuracy and reinforcement rates decreased. When feedback was withheld, further reductions in speed and reinforcement occurred, but only at the strictest time limit. Thus, the procedures were successful in producing systematic variation in the speed, accuracy, and reinforcement of the target behavior. Experiment 2 was designed to assess the influence of these characteristics on self-reports. In self-report conditions, each target response was followed by a computer-generated query: “Did you earn points?” The subject reported by pressing “Yes” or “No” buttons, with the sole consequence of advancing the session. In some cases, feedback about reinforcement of the target response followed the reports; in other cases it was withheld. Self-reports were less accurate when the target responses occurred under greater time pressure. When feedback was withheld, the speed of the target response influenced reports, in that the probability of a “Yes” report increased directly with the speed of accurate target responses. In addition, imposing the self-report procedure disrupted target performance by reducing response speeds at the strictest time limit. These results allow investigation of issues in both behavioral and cognitive psychology. More important, the overall order in the data suggests promise for the experimental analysis of self-reports by human subjects.     

Jeab at 50: coevolution of research and technology

Evidence of how behavioral research and technology have evolved together abounds in the history of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB). Technology from outside the discipline (exogenous), from such disciplines as electronics and computer science, has been adapted for use in behavioral research. Technology from within the discipline (endogenous) has developed from both basic behavioral research and existing apparatus. All of these sources of technology have contributed to the corpus of behavioral research as it has evolved in JEAB. Such research, in turn, has provided the environmental pressure necessary for continuing technological evolution both within and outside the discipline. The new technology thus evolved further spurs research along in novel directions. This dynamic coevolutionary interplay between research and technology is an important variable in the past, present, and future of JEAB.     

Performance of children under a multiple random-ratio random-interval schedule of reinforcement

Three children, aged 1.5, 2.5, and 4.5 years, pressed telegraph keys under a two-component multiple random-ratio random-interval schedule of reinforcement. In the first condition, responses on the left key were reinforced under a random-interval schedule and responses on the right key were reinforced under a random-ratio schedule. In the second condition, the schedule components were reversed. In the third condition, the original arrangement was reinstated. For all subjects, rates of responding were higher in the random-ratio component despite higher rates of reinforcement in the random-interval component. The average interreinforcement interval of the random-interval component was increased in the fourth condition, resulting in more similar rates of reinforcement for both schedule components, and then returned to its original value in the fifth condition. In both conditions, all subjects continued to exhibit higher rates of responding in the ratio component than in the interval component. Although these observations are consistent with results from studies with pigeons, it is argued that the response-rate differences between the interval and ratio schedule components are sufficient to demonstrate schedule sensitivity.     

Intersectional Identities,Identity Dimensions,and Academic Contingencies of Self-Worth

Many people rely on academic performance as an important part of their self-concept, or have academic contingencies of self-worth. We compared academic contingencies of self-worth in three groups of participants, who varied in their feelings about two minority identities: sexual minority Asian/Pacific Islanders, straight Asian/Pacific Islanders, and sexual minority Whites. Comparing pairs of groups that shared one marginalized social identity, we confirmed our hypothesis that participants’ feelings about their racial identity related to contingent self-worth differently based on their sexuality; in contrast, participants’ feelings about their sexual identity related to contingent self-worth in the same way regardless of race. The group defined by the intersection of two minority social identities (Asian/Pacific Islander and sexual minority) is of particular interest.     

工作记忆和感觉运动速度在心算加工年老化过程中的作用

对心算加工年老化研究有助于阐明认知老化规律,然而有关心算老化的少量研究结果仍存在不一致甚至矛盾之处。导致这种不一致的原因十分复杂,表面上看,不同认知老化研究所采用的统计方法不尽相同导致了结果的歧异。例如,在心算的年老化研究中,有的研究结论基于群体的数据分析,如层级回归分析(hierarchical regres-sion analyses)或方差分析,如Sahhouse和Coon(1994);另有一些研究先对每一个体数据作线性回归分析,如此得到斜率和截距(分别表示心算的中枢加工时间和外周感觉运动时间),然后再行层级回归分析或方差分析,如Al-len等(1992,1997)。这两类统计分析所得的结果很不一致。从理论上看,只要所采用的统计方法是合理的,统计方法的不尽相同应不会导致矛盾。但在实际情况下,统计分析误差增加了结论不一致的可能性,从而增大了揭示心算老化复杂性规律的难度。事实上,心算活动的年龄差异可能来自于记忆、加工速度等不同认知资源的老化差异。为了深入探讨这一问题,我们进一步研究了工作记忆和感觉运动速度在心算加工年老化过程中的作用。被试共161人,20—79岁,身体健康,受教育年限12年以上,以10岁段划分为6个年龄组,组间文化程度基本匹配。被试任务包括：(1)连续减法心算,分别为1000—3、1000—7、1000—13及1000—17等4种,在排除了被试看屏幕和按键的感觉运动时间后得到心算所需的时间;(2)数字计算工作记忆,根据工作记忆对信息同时进行加工和储存的特点,要求被试计算完题后再回忆答案,以获得工作记忆广度指标;(3)“数字复制”(digit copying),以获得感觉运动速度指标。实验在386微机上进行。对所得数据分别进行了上述群体数据与个体数据分析。两种数据分析方法得到了相同的结果,一致表明,在控制工作记忆与感觉运动速度的年龄差异后,心算活动的年龄差异显著降低。而且,控制感觉运动速度的年龄差异后心算活动年龄差异的降低程度要大于控制工作记忆的年龄差异后心算活动年龄差异的降低程度。这说明,感觉运动速度在心算加工年老化过程中发挥了更大作用。但是,工作记忆与感觉运动速度二者的年龄差异并不能完全解释心算活动的年龄差异,表明心算加工的年老化存在其特殊性过程,不支持认知老化的普遍减慢假说(genenalized slowing hypotllesis)。     

The Good Behavior Game: A brief review

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is a group contingency that reduces disruption and increases engagement in various contexts. In recent years, researchers have extended the GBG in at least 3 ways: (a) demonstrating its efficacy with novel populations, settings, and behaviors, (b) examining procedural variations that improve contextual fit, and (c) using more comprehensive data collection methods to explore the behavior of individual students and indirect effects. The purpose of the current review is to summarize recent advances, discuss implications of recent studies and potential mechanisms for the general efficacy of the GBG, and suggest future directions.