Effects of reward distribution and performance feedback on competitive responding

To implement competitive contingencies, one must select a distribution of unequal rewards and a schedule of feedback for competitors regarding one another's performance. This study investigated three bases for distributing rewards and two performance feedback conditions. Pairs of college students competed over a series of 2-min contests in which the competitive response was a knob pull. A sum of money was divided using a proportional distribution or one of two fixed reward distributions. In the proportional distribution, a subject's proportion of the sum was his or her proportion of the total number of responses. The two fixed distributions were divisions of 100%/0% or 67%/33%. Also, in every contest either subject could make a response that would end the contest prematurely and give both subjects the same amount—a sum equal to 33% of the competitive total. In the two feedback conditions, cumulative responses by each subject were either shown to both subjects during the contest or were not shown. The proportional distribution was clearly superior to either of the fixed distributions in number of responses produced across contests. The proportional distribution with feedback produced the largest number of competitive responses, and the 100%/0% distribution without feedback produced the smallest number. Differences among distributions typically emerged only during later blocks of contests. Fixed distributions of rewards often produced decelerating rates of responding, with losing competitors ending the contests before they were completed. Response-rate decreases were greatest for pairs in which the 2 subjects differed most in their response rates and proportion of wins. The presence of feedback had a small effect, increasing responding for some pairs in the 100%/0% distribution. Performance patterns were interpreted in terms of the consequences arranged for the individual participants by the reward distributions and differences in performance between competitors.     

The S-R issue: its status in behavior analysis and in Donahoe and Palmer''s learning and complex behavior.

The central focus of this essay is whether the effect of reinforcement is best viewed as the strengthenng of responding or the strengthening of the environmental control of responding. We make the argument that adherence to Skinner's goal of achieving a moment-to-moment analysis of behavior compels acceptance of the latter view. Moreover, a thoroughgoing commitment to a moment-to-moment analysis undermines the fundamental distinction between the conditioning process instantiated by operant and respondent contingencies while buttressing the crucially important differences in their cumulative outcomes. Computer simulations informed by experimental analyses of behavior and neuroscience are used to illustrate these points.     

感知运动经验在心理时间线形成中的作用—来自盲生的证据

本研究考察视觉和读写习惯有关的感知运动经验是如何影响心理时间形成的。实验1和实验2分别采用一天内和一生中的词语或短句,以小学三年级的普生和盲生为被试,结果发现不论是短的还是长的时间,普生对早的刺激按左键,晚的刺激按右键反应更快,而盲生未出现早左晚右的心理时间线。实验3和实验4分别以短时间和长时间范围的时间词为材料,以初一盲生和普生为被试,结果发现普生和盲生都是对过去的时间按左键,未来的时间按右键反应快;而且在长的时间范围内,盲生的反应时长于普生。结果表明视觉是心理时间线的基础,阅读经验在盲生心理时间线的形成中起着关键作用。     

Individuals with pronounced schizotypal traits are particularly successful in tickling themselves

We assessed self-tickling sensations in a group of participants high in schizotypal traits (n = 27) and group of participants low in schizotypal traits (n = 27). The groups were formed by screening a pool of 397 students for extreme scores in the French version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. As observed in a previous study involving psychiatric people with auditory hallucinations and/or passivity experiences our results showed that self-applied tactile stimulations are felt to be more ticklish by healthy individuals high in schizotypal traits. In contrast, there were no significant intergroup differences in the mean tickle rating in the externally-produced tickling condition. Furthermore, more successful self-tickling was associated with more frequent self-reports of unusual perceptual experiences (such as supernatural experiences) and passivity experiences in particular (such as a feeling of being under the control of an outside force or power).     

Achievement goals and improvement following failure: moderating roles of self-compassion and contingency of self-worth

We examined whether mastery goals promote greater score improvement on a cognitive test than performance goals and whether self-compassion and contingency of self-worth moderated the effect. Participants received either mastery or performance goals manipulation, failed on a difficult test, and took the test again after receiving the correct answers. Those with mastery goals showed a greater score improvement than those with performance goals, although post-failure state self-esteem did not differ between the two conditions. Moreover, the goals had a greater effect among (a) those with low rather than high self-compassion and (b) those with high rather than low competition contingency of self-worth. The findings suggest that by framing the task as a challenge rather than a threat, mastery goals encourage people to learn from failure more so than performance goals, especially when under high ego-threat.     

Treatment of food selectivity: An evaluation of video modeling of contingencies

Many children with disabilities have feeding problems including, but not limited to, food selectivity and/or food refusal. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of video modeling of contingencies alone and combined with direct exposure to the contingencies in the treatment of food selectivity. Treatment procedures included sequentially introducing videos in which models consumed nonpreferred foods or were exposed to differential reinforcement or differential reinforcement plus escape extinction. In addition, during feeding sessions, participants were exposed to differential reinforcement. Results indicated that video modeling of differential reinforcement plus direct exposure to differential reinforcement may be effective at increasing consumption of some nonpreferred foods, but the results were not replicated across all foods. For one participant, consumption of one food increased with video modeling alone.     

THE EFFECTS OF RECIPROCAL PEER TUTORING AND GROUP CONTINGENCIES ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN

We evaluated the effects of reciprocal peer tutoring combined with group reinforcement contingencies on the arithmetic performance of 12 underachieving fifth-grade students. Results indicated that the intervention increased the students' arithmetic performance to a level indistinguishable from their classmates during treatment and 12-week follow-up phases. Pre-, post-, and follow-up sociometric data indicated that the students who participated in the treatment groups increased their amount of peer affiliation with other treatment group members.     

THE USE OF PEER MONITORS TO REDUCE NEGATIVE INTERACTION DURING RECESS

The negative interactions of a mildly retarded child, Dennis, were reduced in three daily recess periods, withthe use of a point system. Adult monitors initiatedthe intervention inthe morning recess; reductions achieved during adult monitoring were maintained in that recess during two subsequent conditions: peer monitoring and self-monitoring. Dennis' negative interactions were reduced next inthe afternoon recess by peer monitors. Again, reductions were maintained during a subsequent self-monitoring condition. Finally, duringthe noon recess, Dennis was trained to serve as a peer monitor for Ed, a moderately retarded classmate. Dennis' rate of negative interactions quickly decreased following his appointment as a peer monitor. The results show that a point system, originally designed for adult monitoring, can be adapted without loss of program effectiveness for peer monitoring or self-monitoring. The results also suggest that classmates who serve as peer monitors may benefit significantly from their role. The conditions under which these therapeutic effects occur andthe role that treatment order effects may play in this process require further investigation.     

Sensorimotor development in cocaine-exposed infants

This study investigated the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on infant sensorimotor development. One hundred and sixty-seven12-month-olds (74 cocaine-exposed and 93 unexposed) were assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID). Ninety-seven had previously been evaluated on the Movement Assessment of Infants and the Test of Sensory Functions in Infants at age 4 months. On the BSID, the cocaine-exposed infants performed less well on the Mental portion and were more frequently rated as behaviorally suspect. Cocaine-exposed infants also performed less well at four months on the motor and sensory measures. Early motor performance predicted 12 month BSID mental, motor and behavioral outcomes. Cocaine exposure had an effect independent from confounders on general cognitive and specific motor and behavioral outcomes.     

ANALYSIS OF FREE-TIME CONTINGENCIES AS POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Providing a short break contingent on completed work may increase responding through positive reinforcement (e.g., access to preferred activities) or negative reinforcement (e.g., escape from work). In this investigation, three analyses conducted with a boy with profound mental retardation showed that (a) a 20-s break increased responding more than a positive reinforcer (cola) did, and (b) the reinforcing effects of a 20-s break were affected by the availability of positive reinforcers during the break.