抽象概念表征的具身认知观

抽象概念是否通过感知经验来表征以及如何被感知经验表征是具身认知面临的一大问题.在抽象概念表征是否具有感知经验基础的问题上,具身认知理论认为抽象概念通过情境模拟或隐喻与感知经验发生联系.在抽象概念如何与感知经验表征发生联系的问题上,概念模拟理论强调情景或运动模拟在抽象概念表征中的直接作用;概念隐喻理论则侧重具体经验或具体经验与抽象概念之间的共同结构关系在抽象概念表征中的间接作用.未来研究应改变概念表征的稳定的心理实体观,从语言和抽象表征的关系、正常儿童和特殊群体的抽象概念表征差异入手,整合不同的具身认知观点.     

Differential Daily Writing Contingencies and Performance on Major Multiple-Choice Exams

On 4 of 7 days in each unit of an undergraduate human development course, students responded in writing to specific questions related to instructor notes previously made available to them. The study compared the effects of three writing contingencies on the quality of student writing and performance on major multiple-choice exams in the course. The three contingencies were (1) receiving credit for all writing products each unit, (2) receiving credit for one randomly selected writing product each unit, and (3) receiving no credit for any writing product each unit. On all dimensions of exam performance, writing for daily credit produced higher scores than did writing for random credit and writing for no credit. The daily-writing contingency also produced the highest writing ratings across all units; the writing for random credit produced the next highest writing scores; and the writing for no credit yielded the lowest writing scores. Across all three contingencies, writing scores were highly correlated with performance on multiple-choice exams.     

工作记忆和感觉运动速度在心算加工年老化过程中的作用

对心算加工年老化研究有助于阐明认知老化规律,然而有关心算老化的少量研究结果仍存在不一致甚至矛盾之处。导致这种不一致的原因十分复杂,表面上看,不同认知老化研究所采用的统计方法不尽相同导致了结果的歧异。例如,在心算的年老化研究中,有的研究结论基于群体的数据分析,如层级回归分析(hierarchical regres-sion analyses)或方差分析,如Sahhouse和Coon(1994);另有一些研究先对每一个体数据作线性回归分析,如此得到斜率和截距(分别表示心算的中枢加工时间和外周感觉运动时间),然后再行层级回归分析或方差分析,如Al-len等(1992,1997)。这两类统计分析所得的结果很不一致。从理论上看,只要所采用的统计方法是合理的,统计方法的不尽相同应不会导致矛盾。但在实际情况下,统计分析误差增加了结论不一致的可能性,从而增大了揭示心算老化复杂性规律的难度。事实上,心算活动的年龄差异可能来自于记忆、加工速度等不同认知资源的老化差异。为了深入探讨这一问题,我们进一步研究了工作记忆和感觉运动速度在心算加工年老化过程中的作用。被试共161人,20—79岁,身体健康,受教育年限12年以上,以10岁段划分为6个年龄组,组间文化程度基本匹配。被试任务包括：(1)连续减法心算,分别为1000—3、1000—7、1000—13及1000—17等4种,在排除了被试看屏幕和按键的感觉运动时间后得到心算所需的时间;(2)数字计算工作记忆,根据工作记忆对信息同时进行加工和储存的特点,要求被试计算完题后再回忆答案,以获得工作记忆广度指标;(3)“数字复制”(digit copying),以获得感觉运动速度指标。实验在386微机上进行。对所得数据分别进行了上述群体数据与个体数据分析。两种数据分析方法得到了相同的结果,一致表明,在控制工作记忆与感觉运动速度的年龄差异后,心算活动的年龄差异显著降低。而且,控制感觉运动速度的年龄差异后心算活动年龄差异的降低程度要大于控制工作记忆的年龄差异后心算活动年龄差异的降低程度。这说明,感觉运动速度在心算加工年老化过程中发挥了更大作用。但是,工作记忆与感觉运动速度二者的年龄差异并不能完全解释心算活动的年龄差异,表明心算加工的年老化存在其特殊性过程,不支持认知老化的普遍减慢假说(genenalized slowing hypotllesis)。     

Achievement goals and improvement following failure: moderating roles of self-compassion and contingency of self-worth

We examined whether mastery goals promote greater score improvement on a cognitive test than performance goals and whether self-compassion and contingency of self-worth moderated the effect. Participants received either mastery or performance goals manipulation, failed on a difficult test, and took the test again after receiving the correct answers. Those with mastery goals showed a greater score improvement than those with performance goals, although post-failure state self-esteem did not differ between the two conditions. Moreover, the goals had a greater effect among (a) those with low rather than high self-compassion and (b) those with high rather than low competition contingency of self-worth. The findings suggest that by framing the task as a challenge rather than a threat, mastery goals encourage people to learn from failure more so than performance goals, especially when under high ego-threat.     

Effects of group response-cost procedures on cash shortages in a small business

The effect of a group response-cost procedure (accompanied by verbal and written instruction) designed to decrease cash shortages in a small business was evaluated with a reversal design. When cash shortages were subtracted from the six employees' salaries on days in which the shortage exceeded 1% of total daily sales, the magnitude of daily shortages sharply decreased. This response-cost contingency was used only three times throughout the study, with a maximum cost of $8.70 per subject over the 41-day period. The efficacy of the procedures may be due to either increased precision in change calculations, a decreased frequency of stealing from the cash register, increased shortchanging of customers, and/or increased incidents of register under-ringing. Ethical questions relative to the utilization of group punishment procedures are raised, and it was concluded that the procedures used were more humane than commonly used alternatives.     

THE USE OF IMPOSED AND SELF-SELECTED TRAINING PACKAGES TO ESTABLISH CLASSROOM TEACHING SKILLS1

Although much is known about techniques for teaching elementary pupils in the classroom, no procedures have been consistently effective in training teachers to use these techniques. In the present study, six teacher trainees were observed individually and trained sequentially to use a variety of teaching skills: praise for academic responses, praise for appropriate classroom behavior, correction procedures for incorrect academic responses, and token fines. These skills were examined under four conditions: (1) baseline sessions were taught by the trainees before any instructions on the use of the teaching skills. (2) Instruction sessions were taught by the trainees after they were given instructions describing the use of several teaching skills. (3) During each Imposed-Package session, the trainees received modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, and grade and quiz contingencies on their use of a particular teaching skill. (4) During each Self-Selected Package session, a grade contingency was in effect with the trainees choosing the components (modelling, verbal feedback, graphic feedback, quiz contingency) they wanted included in their training package for a particular skill. The effects of instructions were quite varied. Large increases on three of the four skills occurred with one trainee; almost no changes occurred with another trainee; and changes with the remaining four trainees fell within these extremes. The Imposed and Self-Selected Packages reliably increased the use of teaching skills, including those skills for which instructions had not been effective. The Self-Selected Package was considered to be as effective as the Imposed Package, since the time required for training a teaching skill varied from two to nine sessions with both packages. Under the Self-Selected Package, the trainees chose from modelling, verbal feedback, and graphic feedback, but none chose the quiz contingency. Questionnaire data collected after training showed that all six trainees preferred the Self-Selected Package to the Imposed Package. The effectiveness of the Self-Selected Package, together with the trainees' preference for it, suggests that it may be desirable for teacher training programs to specify the teaching skills, arrange a contingency for performance, and allow trainees to choose which additional components are to be used in each training session.     

THE EFFECTS OF RECIPROCAL PEER TUTORING AND GROUP CONTINGENCIES ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN

We evaluated the effects of reciprocal peer tutoring combined with group reinforcement contingencies on the arithmetic performance of 12 underachieving fifth-grade students. Results indicated that the intervention increased the students' arithmetic performance to a level indistinguishable from their classmates during treatment and 12-week follow-up phases. Pre-, post-, and follow-up sociometric data indicated that the students who participated in the treatment groups increased their amount of peer affiliation with other treatment group members.