Assessing preference for reinforcers using demand curves, work-rate functions, and expansion paths

Much research has focused on the effects of environmental variability on foraging decisions. However, the general pattern of preference for variability in delay to reward and aversion to variability in amount of reward remains unexplained a either a mechanistic or a functional level. Starlings' preferences between a fixed and a variable option were studied in two treatments, A and D. The fixed option was the same in both treatments (20-s fixed-interval delay, five units food). In Treatment A the variable option gave two equiprobable amounts of food (20-s delay, three or seven units) and in D it gave two equiprobable delays to food (2.5-s or 60.5-s delays, five units). In both treatments the programmed ratio [amount/(intertrial interval+latency+delay)] in the fixed option equaled the arithmetic mean of the two possible ratios in the variable option (ITI = 40 s, latency = 1 s). The variable option was strongly preferred in Treatment D and was weakly avoided in Treatment A. These results are discussed in the light of two theoretical models, a form of constrained rate maximization and a version of scalar expectancy theory. The latter accommodates more of the data and is based on independently verifiable assumptions, including Weber's law.     

Molar versus local reinforcement probability as determinants of stimulus value.

During one component of a multiple schedule, pigeons were trained on a discrete-trial concurrent variable-interval variable-interval schedule in which one alternative had a high scheduled rate of reinforcement and the other a low scheduled rate of reinforcement. When the choice proportion between the alternatives matched their respective relative reinforcement frequencies, the obtained probabilities of reinforcement (reinforcer per peck) were approximately equal. In alternate components of the multiple schedule, a single response alternative was presented with an intermediate scheduled rate of reinforcement. During probe trials, each alternative of the concurrent schedule was paired with the constant alternative. The stimulus correlated with the high reinforcement rate was preferred over that with the intermediate rate, whereas the stimulus correlated with the intermediate rate of reinforcement was preferred over that correlated with the low rate of reinforcement. Preference on probe tests was thus determined by the scheduled rate of reinforcement. Other subjects were presented all three alternatives individually, but with a distribution of trial frequency and reinforcement probability similar to that produced by the choice patterns of the original subjects. Here, preferences on probe tests were determined by the obtained probabilities of reinforcement. Comparison of the two sets of results indicates that the availability of a choice alternative, even when not responded to, affects the preference for that alternative. The results imply that models of choice that invoke only obtained probability of reinforcement as the controlling variable (e.g., melioration) are inadequate.     

短时距估计中的标量特性

使用单任务研究程序,采用预期式研究范式和再现时距的研究方法,从心理物理学的视角,通过三个实验系统地考查了人类短时距估计的标量特性、变异源、时距估计中的转换点和韦伯函数的形态等问题。结果表明,刺激物的运动、变化、速度和物理时距是被试进行短时距估计的重要变异源;被试在实验中表现出高估较短时距和低估较长时距的倾向,时距估计的转换点为11.1s;计时过程中得到的韦伯函数是个分段连续函数, 韦伯函数的拐点有两个12s和21s,这两点与本研究得到的时距估计转换点具有部分一致性     

Act local but don’t think too global: The impact of ecological goal level on behavior

ABSTRACT

Growing awareness of humanity’s impact on the environment raises the question of how best to encourage pro-environmental actions. Numerous campaigns have been created to convince people to adopt environmentally friendly everyday behaviors, with varying success. The difficulty may be due, at least in part, to the huge gap between these small individual actions and the high-level goals, such as “saving the planet,” often used as incentives. We tested this hypothesis via four experiments. Studies 1 and 2 showed that high-level goals were less effective than low-level goals in promoting paper- and energy-saving behaviors. Study 3 showed that high-level goals engender lower perceived outcome expectancy and higher perception of cumulative effort. Study 4 showed that outcome expectancy mediates the direct effect of goal level on intention.     

The Violation of Expectancies

ABSTRACT

The term “violation of expectancies” is derived from empirical studies of early development by Beebe and Lachmann. It referred, in their lexicon, to the interaction of mother and infant, organized by disruptions and efforts to resolve these breaches. This article expands the term's meaning to include a broad range of disruptive experiences, occurring not only in infancy but throughout the life cycle. The author's premise is that a developmental continuity exists between infant states and adult psychopathological states. This requires that we look in infancy for beginnings of states that we recognize as existing later on. The author provides a detailed review of infancy research, so as to give credence and support to the significance of the concept of violation of expectancy, and how these violations play a dominant role in the thematic and nuanced reverberations of our lives and in the intersubjective context of our experience. The concept of trauma derives from a one-person psychology, and is connected to unconscious fantasy, conflict and compromise formation, whereas “violation of expectancy” is a relational concept, based on mother-child interactions and originating within an intersubjective context. The author provides three case examples of violation of expectancy and their reverberations: The first involves early and repeated disruption in infancy, the second occurs in a relatively intact child, and the third derives from an autobiographical character.     

The overall pattern of the evolution of information in dissipative,material systems

I have argued for the reality of a second law of infodynamics. That is, that the information carrying capacity in a system, as viewed from within, must continue to increase as long as the system supports internal observation. I will be concerned here with matters of scale, as well as with system senescence (rigidity produced by the asymptotic approach to maximum information storage within a system). My major categories derive from a view of system development, and are: immaturity, maturity and senescence. As an immature system grows in size, It deploys information over ever smaller scales as it transforms from the vagueness of immaturity toward ever more definite embodiment. This eventually results in an information overload, gradually eroding system adaptability as it increasingly inhibits the variety of system responses by limiting its ability to further qualify stored information;     

The relativity of time perception produced by facial emotion stimuli

Insults elicit intense emotion. This study tests the hypothesis that one's social image, which is especially salient in honour cultures, influences the way in which one reacts to an insult. Seventy-seven honour-oriented and 72 non-honour oriented participants answered questions about a recent insult episode. Participants experienced both anger and shame in reaction to the insult. However, these emotions resulted in different behaviours. Anger led to verbal attack (i.e., criticising, insulting in return) among all participants. This relationship was explained by participants’ motivation to punish the wrongdoer. Shame, on the other hand, was moderated by honour. Shame led to verbal disapproval of the wrongdoers behaviour, but only among the honour-oriented participants. This relationship was explained by these participants’ motivation to protect their social image. By contrast, shame led to withdrawal among non-honour-oriented participants.     

跨通道情境下双任务范式与计时中断范式中的效应比较*

为了探讨跨通道情境下同一种刺激序列中双任务范式与计时中断范式中位置效应和间断效应的异同,研究设计了实验1和实验2。实验1以2500 ms和4500 ms为目标时距,采用相同的刺激序列(视觉呈现时距信号,听觉呈现干扰信号或中断信号),要求3组被试分别在控制、干扰及中断条件下完成相应任务,结果发现不管2500 ms或4500 ms时,中断条件较干扰条件和控制条件的间断效应更明显;同时发现在2500 ms时,不管控制、干扰还是中断条件下均发现了位置效应,而4500 ms时仅在中断条件下出现了位置效应,这可能由于实验1的控制及干扰任务中的4500 ms时的“晚”位置的时间确定性较高,以致掩盖了位置效应。为了降低“晚”位置出现的确定性,更好地对比两种范式中的效应,实验2将目标时距设置为1500 ms和2500 ms,结果发现在1500 ms或2500 ms时,不管控制、干扰还是中断条件下均发现了位置效应,且中断条件较干扰条件和控制条件下间断效应更明显。上述结果意味着跨通道情境下同一种刺激序列中双任务范式与计时中断范式中位置效应是否相同局限在一定时间范畴;计时中断范式中的中断效应对计时的消弱较双任务范式干扰效应更显著。     

Melatonin and Sleep Qualities in Healthy Adults: Pharmacological and Expectancy Effects

The impact of expectancy on melatonin's effects on sleep qualities was investigated. Both the pharmacological dose of 6 mg of melatonin and the expectation of receiving melatonin were predicted to improve subjective ratings of sleep qualities. The balanced placebo design varied 2 factors within-subjects: actual treatment and expected treatment. Adults (N = 53; 21 men and 32 women) between the ages of 26 and 71 years were administered either 6 mg of melatonin or a placebo for 8 nights. An instructional manipulation directed participants' expectations. Participants rated their nightly sleep experiences. Results revealed that feelings upon awakening differed between genders and that expecting melatonin increased ratings of sleep continuity. Most important, high ratings of “grogginess/tiredness” were associated with receiving melatonin, regardless of expectancy, as well as with receiving placebo when melatonin was expected. Overall, the findings underscore the need to consider expectancy and gender differences in research on melatonin and sleep experiences.     

Response expectancy versus response hope in predicting birth‐related emotional distress and pain

Response expectancies and response hopes have been shown to be two distinct constructs with important implications for nonvolitional outcomes. More specifically, studies show that response expectancies: (1) are sufficient to cause nonvolitional outcomes, (2) are not mediated by other psychological variables, and (3) are self‐confirming while seemingly automatic. A new programmatic research line has differentiated between people's response expectancies and their response hopes regarding nonvolitional outcomes and showed that even if response hope and response expectancy are separate constructs, they are not unrelated. These concepts have not yet been studied in pregnant women. Moreover, determining the causal factors that best explain the variance of emotional distress and pain in pregnancy is of great importance. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the interrelations between response expectancy and response hope in pregnant women with respect to (1) emotional distress prior to giving birth and (2) pain during giving birth. Additionally, self‐reported labor hours were analyzed as a secondary outcome. Results show that response expectancy for pain directly predicts pain, and that the discrepancy between response hopes and response expectancies is a strong predictor of investigated outcomes. Thus, our results support the idea that preventive psychological interventions for pregnant women should emphasize adjusting response expectancies and response hopes regarding the pain and emotional distress associated with giving birth. We believe that the results have both theoretical and practical implications and the topic deserves further investigation.