OPERANT CONTROL OF PATHOLOGICAL TONGUE THRUST IN SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY

Pathological tongue thrust (reverse swallowing) has been associated with neuromuscular disorders and linked to dental malocclusion, articulation problems, difficulty in eating, and excessive drooling. In this study, observable tongue thrust in a 10-year-old retarded male was modified during mealtime using a procedure consisting of differential reinforcement (presentation of food contingent upon tongue in) and punishment (gently pushing the tongue back into the mouth with a spoon). Results of a reversal design showed substantial decreases in tongue thrust and food expulsion, and a large increase in observed chewing. These data compared favorably with data obtained for other retarded persons not judged to be tongue thrusters; in addition, the objective results of the treatment program were substantiated via pre-post evaluations done by occupational and physical therapists. These findings suggest that operant techniques may be an effective means of treating tongue thrust and its associated problems, and that further development and evaluation of behavioral interventions may provide a desirable alternative to more intrusive surgical or mechanical procedures.     

‘They were brilliant,I don't know what I would've done if they hadn't been here’: the group concept problem revisited

This article concerns the group concept problem in people labelled as having learning disabilities, described in a series of papers by Gibbons and colleagues (Gibbons, 1981 , 1985a , 1985b ; Gibbons & Gibbons, 1980 ; Gibbons & Kassin, 1982 ). We argue that the interpretations of these studies are questionable, and alternative explanations for the patterns of results found are possible. Examples from a study in which people with the label talked about particular others who also have the label are presented. In these examples, the category was not represented as homogeneous, relationships with others were valued, and a desire for distance was only found when participants talked about people who behaved aggressively. The findings are discussed with reference to the social model of disability. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The rise and fall of IQ in special ed: Historical trends and their implications

Using IQ records from 10 sites around the country, we examined longitudinal trends in IQ among mental retardation (MR) students during the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) to WISC-Revised (R) transition in the 1970s and learning disability (LD) students during the WISC-R to WISC-3rd Revision (III) transition in the 1990s. Based on the work by Flynn [American Journal of Mental Deficiency 90 (1985) 236; Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 6 (2000) 191], we predicted a rise in IQ followed by a fall each time a newly normed IQ test is introduced into the schools and used to diagnose children as MR or LD. As expected, we found that mean IQs of MR and LD students followed a nearly identical parabolic trajectory, and differed depending on what year they were tested. IQs from the older norms were higher than IQs from the newly introduced norms. This systematic shift had a significant impact on the likelihood of a MR diagnosis. The broader implications of this pattern are discussed.     

智力落后儿童适应行为发展特点的研究

本研究用儿童适应行为评定量表对4～12岁中、轻度智力落后儿童适应行为发展特点进行探讨,结果发现：他们的适应行为与智力有显著性相关;智力落后儿童适应行为发展落后,其中认知技能发展严重滞后是一个重要原因,但他们的适应行为仍有着相当的发展潜力。     

Differences in visual orienting between persons with Down or fragile X syndrome

The voluntary and reflexive orienting abilities of persons with Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome, at average MA levels of approximately 4 and 7 years, were compared with an RT task. Reflexive orienting abilities appeared to develop in accordance with MA for the participants with Down syndrome but not for those with fragile X syndrome. However, both groups showed delayed voluntary orienting. The group differences in reflexive orienting at the low MA level reinforce the practice of separating etiologies and highlight the contribution of rudimentary attentional processes in the study of individuals with mental retardation.     

Discriminative control of punished stereotyped behavior in humans

The purpose of this experiment was to establish discriminative control of responding by an antecedent stimulus using differential punishment because the results of past studies on this topic have been mixed. Three adults with mental retardation who exhibited stereotypy not maintained by social consequences (i.e., automatic reinforcement) participated. For each subject, stereotypy occurred frequently in the presence of a stimulus correlated with nonpunishment of stereotypy and rarely, if ever, in the presence of a stimulus correlated with punishment of stereotypy. Latency measures showed that the antecedent stimulus correlated with punishment served as the discriminative stimulus for the suppression of stereotypy. These results are important insofar as they show that discriminative control by an antecedent stimulus develops with punishment, and because it sometimes may be desirable to establish such control of socially inappropriate behavior.     

The electroencephalogram and childhood aggression

Available evidence reveals that, although the incidence of abnormal electroencephalograms (EEGs) varies between 10% and 15% in the general adult population, abnormal EEGs occur in 48–70% of aggressive psychopaths. The fact that the EEGs of aggressive, adult psychopaths show a high degree of similarity to the EEGs of normal young children has suggested that aggression may somehow result from a failure in the normal development of the central nervous system. This “maturational-retardation” hypothesis of aggression was investigated in the present study, the purpose of which was to discover whether behavior-problem children who are severely aggressive have immature EEGs, or EEGs characteristic of chronologically younger children. Six severely aggressive boys, aged 8.7–13.6 years, had their EEGs recorded while performing a simple reaction task. For each subject, an interval histogram consisting of measurements of the duration of 780 half wavelengths in the EEG was generated by the computer using the tracing from the left parietal-occipital (P₃ -0₂ ) derivation. The resulting histograms were subjected to a central moments analysis and age of each subject was estimated from the moments by means of a multiple regression equation. This equation, which relates an individual's age to the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th central moments of his EEG interval histogram, had been derived by Surwillo [1975a] on a group of normal boys. In every case, age predicted from the EEG of a severely aggressive subject was less than the subjecťs actual age. This finding was statistically significant, as the probability of the outcome occurring by chance was only 0.016. The results of the experiment supported the maturational-retardation hypothesis of aggressive behavior.     

Imitation of High-Interest Comic Strip Models' Appropriate Classroom Behavior:

Animated cartoons depicting aggressive behavior have been used widely in the investigation of reinforced and generalized imitation in the laboratory. Little research has examined the use of either animated or comic strip cartoons in the teaching and encouragement or desirable skills and activities in real-life settings. The present study employed comic strip drawings of high-interest cartoon models to symbolize and teach skills contributing to the social and educational development of children in a child care center. The results demonstrate that high-interest cartoon models are both effective and feasible agents for positive behavioral change when used within the generalized imitation framework. In addition, four alternative explanations of generalized imitation were tested: the failure to discriminate explanation, the variable-ratio schedule explanation, the demand characteristics explanation and the reinforcement value of stimulus similarity explanation. The findings contradicted the first three and offered evidence in support of the fourth.     

The Pragmatic Press of Political Reality: Use of P.L. 94-142 Discretionary and Set-Aside Funds

Two major reports regarding the financing of special education and the use of P.L. 94-142 discretionary and set-aside funds are analyzed and interpreted with respect to the impact of these funds on state and local education agencies. The need for flexibility as required by the law, as well as the pragmatic press of political reality in the identification of needs and the distribution of resources, are recognized as key factors in the utilization of these monies. The impact of a change in the amount and/or allocation of these funds are discussed in the context of probable consequences at the state and local levels.