Age of acquisition ratings score better on criterion validity than frequency trajectory or ratings “corrected” for frequency

From the very first studies on the effect of age of acquisition (AoA) on word processing, researchers have validated their AoA ratings by correlating them with other, more objective indices of the age at which children know words. Still, the ratings have been questioned, and alternative measures have been proposed. Two of these are differences in word frequency between language directed at young children and language directed at older children (frequency trajectory) and AoA ratings corrected for word frequency. Surprisingly, the criterion validity of these alternative measures has never been established, partly because one of the validation criteria (the age at which children are able to name pictures) has been questioned. In the present study, four databases are used that aimed to establish the order of English word acquisition, going from the very first words learned to words taught in secondary education. The criteria for word knowledge included word production, multiple-choice questions about the meaning of the words, and teacher judgments about when words should be taught in the school curriculum. For all databases, the frequency trajectory correlated substantially less with the criterion than AoA ratings. For all but one, the same was true for AoA ratings “corrected” for other variables. On the basis of these findings, researchers should be cautious interpreting null effects with the “improved” variables as evidence against a genuine AoA effect.     

Discounting by Probabilistic Waiting

In everyday life, many probabilistic situations may be characterized as probabilistic waiting. A gambler, for example, bets repeatedly at the racetrack, the casino, or the card table. The gambler may not win on the first try, but if a gamble is repeated enough times, a win is almost certain to occur eventually. If repeated gambles are structured as strings of losses ending in a win (probabilistic waiting) and the amount won is discounted by the delay caused by the series of losses, then strings with many losses will be discounted more than those with fewer losses, thereby causing subjective value of the series of gambles as a whole to increase. The current study used the opposite effect that amount has on the degree of delay and probability discounting as a marker to determine whether people evaluate situations involving probabilistic waiting as they evaluate situations involving delayed outcomes or as situations involving probabilistic outcomes. We find that the more likely a probabilistic waiting situation is to end in reward (e.g., a gamble is repeated indefinitely until reward is obtained), the more that situation conforms to delay discounting; the less likely a probabilistic waiting situation is to end in reward (e.g., a fixed, small number of gambles), the more that situation conforms to probability discounting. We argue that the former situation is applicable to pathological gambling, and that people with steep delay discount functions would therefore be more likely to have gambling problems. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Witnesses stumbling down memory lane: The effects of alcohol intoxication,retention interval,and repeated interviewing

Intoxicated eyewitnesses are often discredited by investigators and in court, but few studies have examined how alcohol affects witnesses’ memory. The primary aim of the present study was to examine how intoxication (alcohol vs. control), retention interval (immediate vs. one week delay), and number of interviews (one vs. two interviews) affect witnesses’ memory. The participants (N?=?99) were randomly assigned to consume either orange juice or alcohol mixed with orange juice, and they all witnessed a filmed mock crime afterwards. The recall took place either (a) immediately and after a one week delay or (b) after a one week delay only. No main effect of alcohol was found on the quantity or quality of the witnesses’ statements. Both intoxicated and sober witnesses recalled more details, and were more accurate, during immediate compared to delayed recall. For witnesses interviewed twice, an average of 30% new details were provided in the second compared to the first interview, and these were highly accurate. In sum, contrary to what one can expect, intoxicated witnesses with a low to moderate blood alcohol concentration (below 0.10%) were reliable witnesses.     

儿童资源获取行为对学校适应的影响——一个历时5年的跨文化追踪

以160名中国儿童和133名加拿大儿童为被试,采用实验室观察和问卷调查,考察儿童7岁时的资源获取行为对其11岁时学校适应的影响。结果表明：（1）轮流规则行为对儿童的学校适应具有消极的预测作用,且存在性别差异：男孩的轮流规则行为可以显著正向预测其焦虑,女孩的轮流规则行为可以显著负向预测其学校态度;（2）请求行为可以显著正向预测中国儿童攻击行为,加拿大儿童则没有发现该关系;（3）对于资源获取失败次数少的儿童,求助成人行为有积极的适应意义;（4）儿童资源获取行为的结果在儿童7岁时资源获取行为与11岁时学校适应之间发挥调节作用;对于资源获取成功次数少的儿童,请求行为可以显著地正向预测其攻击行为;对于资源获取失败次数少的儿童,请求行为则显著地负向预测其攻击行为,求助成人行为可以显著地负向预测其孤独感。     

词汇获得年龄在物体和动作图画命名中的不同作用

本研究目的是考察词汇获得年龄(早与晚)这一因素对物体图画和动作图画命名是否产生了不同的影响。采用物体图画和动作图画命名任务,发现:(1)相比于物体图画命名,动作图画命名的反应时更长,表明动词的产生更为复杂。(2)在物体图画命名任务中,与晚获得词相比,早获得的词产生速度更快;相比而言,在动作图画命名中,晚获得词比早获得词的反应时更短,反应速度更快。基于分析和讨论,我们认为Ao A效应可能发生在图画命名过程中的词汇水平,而非概念水平或反应输出阶段。     

Impact of contextual constraint on vocabulary acquisition in reading*

The current study investigated the influence of contextual constraint (strong versus moderate) on incidental vocabulary acquisition in reading, as eye movements of adult skilled readers were monitored. Surprise post-tests followed the reading session, and eye movement behaviour was directly connected to retention data. Longer and more frequent reading/rereading was associated with trials containing a novel target (rather than a known control), and unique patterns of connective rereading between constraint conditions were observed. For reading measures reflecting target word processing and connecting target with context, fixations were generally longer and more frequent for moderate constraint than for strong. The exception was in rereading of informative context, which was generally longer for strong constraint. More and longer fixations while connecting novel targets with informative context proved critical for novel word retention, significantly so for moderate constraint but not for strong, based on eye movement data associated with memory for novel word stimuli.     

潜在冲突情境下7岁儿童的资源获得行为

采用实验室观察, 对7岁儿童(中国160人, 加拿大133人)在潜在冲突情境下的资源获得行为进行考察, 旨在比较中西文化背景下, 儿童资源获得行为上的差异及其背后的文化意义。结果表明：中国儿童的求助成人和给予行为显著多于加拿大儿童; 加拿大儿童的资源获得失败和为自己获得资源的频率显著高于中国儿童。果敢行为和轮流规则都是有效的资源获得方式; 请求行为则是无效的。求助成人是中国男孩获得资源的一种有效方式; 对加拿大儿童来说, 则是无效的。     

Reinforcement of vocalizations through contingent vocal imitation

Maternal vocal imitation of infant vocalizations is highly prevalent during face-to-face interactions of infants and their caregivers. Although maternal vocal imitation has been associated with later verbal development, its potentially reinforcing effect on infant vocalizations has not been explored experimentally. This study examined the reinforcing effect of maternal vocal imitation of infant vocalizations using a reversal probe BAB design. Eleven 3- to 8-month-old infants at high risk for developmental delays experienced contingent maternal vocal imitation during reinforcement conditions. Differential reinforcement of other behavior served as the control condition. The behavior of 10 infants showed evidence of a reinforcement effect. Results indicated that vocal imitations can serve to reinforce early infant vocalizations.     

Singaporean kindergartners' phonological awareness and English writing skills

This article describes the phonological awareness and English writing skills among a sample of 297 Singaporean kindergarten children, stratified by ethnicity (Chinese, Malay, and Indian), and examines the relationship between oral language and writing skills in this multilingual population. Overall, Singaporean kindergartners, nearly all of whom were bilingual, scored higher on English writing but lower on English oral language skills than U.S. norms. Despite literacy instruction that emphasized whole-word memorization, phonological awareness statistically significantly predicted English writing scores, controlling for English vocabulary, ethnicity, sex, and an interaction between English vocabulary and sex. The current study's findings highlight the possibility of developing high literacy skills among bilingual learners with low oral language skills. In addition, the study demonstrates children's development of phonological awareness in the absence of phonological awareness or phonics instruction and supports the theory that both alphabetic (phonological) processes and logographic (whole-word) processes contribute to successful English literacy achievement.