Control by reinforcers across time and space: A review of recent choice research

Reinforcers affect behavior. A fundamental assumption has been that reinforcers strengthen the behavior they follow, and that this strengthening may be context‐specific (stimulus control). Less frequently discussed, but just as evident, is the observation that reinforcers have discriminative properties that also guide behavior. We review findings from recent research that approaches choice using nontraditional procedures, with a particular focus on how choice is affected by reinforcers, by time since reinforcers, and by recent sequences of reinforcers. We also discuss how conclusions about these results are impacted by the choice of measurement level and display. Clearly, reinforcers as traditionally considered are conditionally phylogenetically important to animals. However, their effects on behavior may be solely discriminative, and contingent reinforcers may not strengthen behavior. Rather, phylogenetically important stimuli constitute a part of a correlated compound stimulus context consisting of stimuli arising from the organism, from behavior, and from physiologically detected environmental stimuli. Thus, the three‐term contingency may be seen, along with organismic state, as a correlation of stimuli. We suggest that organisms may be seen as natural stimulus‐correlation detectors so that behavioral change affects the overall correlation and directs the organism toward currently appetitive goals and away from potential aversive goals. As a general conclusion, both historical and recent choice research supports the idea that stimulus control, not reinforcer control, may be fundamental.     

文章标记量影响文章标记效应的实验研究

探讨文章阅读过程中文章标记量的多少对文章中不同类型的信号保持的影响。结果表明 ,在有标记的目标句上 ,少标记条件显著优于多标记条件和无标记条件 ,多标记条件与无标记条件之间无显著差异 ;在无标记的目标句上 ,无标记条件显著优于多标记条件和少标记条件 ,多标记条件与少标记条件之间无显著差异。这一结果支持在文章阅读过程中读者是微略性地运用文章标记的假设和交易效应的假设。     

Effects of negative incentive shifts in food reward on rats' consumption of concurrent ethanol solutions

Frustration stress, typically operationalized as the unexpected loss of reinforcement, has been shown to engender substance use. Abrupt reductions in reinforcer magnitude likely also function as frustration stressors. These negative incentive shifts were previously shown to produce tap‐ and sweetened‐water drinking in rats. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether these shifts in food reward would occasion oral ethanol self‐administration. Nine male Long‐Evans rats operated on a two‐component multiple fixed‐ratio schedule with signaled components producing either a large (4 pellets) or small (1pellet) reinforcer. Components were pseudorandomly arranged to present 4 transitions between past and upcoming reinforcer magnitudes: small‐to‐large, small‐to‐small, large‐to‐large, and large‐to‐small (negative incentive shift). Experiment 1 investigated the effects of negative incentive shifts on consumption of concurrent, freely available 10% sucrose, 10% sucrose plus 10% ethanol, and following sucrose fading, 10% ethanol. Experiment 2 entailed continuation of schedule contingencies with a dose manipulation of 4 ethanol concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 20%) to assess dose‐dependent differences in transition‐type control and consumption. A lever‐press extinction condition was then conducted with 10% ethanol availability. In this novel model of frustration stress, negative incentive shifts prompted ethanol self‐administration at each dose investigated, whereas the other transitions did not.     

Assessing preferences of individuals with developmental disabilities using alternative stimulus modalities: A systematic review

The purpose of this systematic review was to identify investigations comparing the efficacy of alternative modality (e.g., pictorial, verbal, video) stimulus preference assessments for individuals with developmental disabilities. We identified articles by searching peer‐reviewed journals using the PsycINFO and ERIC databases, conducting table of contents searches of common behavioral outlets, and conducting ancestral searches of recent reviews and practitioner summaries of preference assessment methodology. A total of 32 articles met our inclusion criteria. These studies were then coded across a variety of features to gain a better understanding of the efficacy of alternative format preference assessments for individuals with developmental disabilities. In addition, we reviewed this literature for the use of prerequisite‐skill assessments and contingent‐reinforcer access to further investigate the relation between these variables and the accuracy of pictorial, verbal, and video preference assessments. A variety of methodological concerns are discussed as well as suggestions for future research.     

Using stimulus preference assessments to identify preferred break environments

A pictorial preference assessment was conducted for 2 individuals with autism who had programmed breaks in their behavior plans. Assessed break environments were individualized, based on indirect assessments and direct observations. The most highly (HP) and least preferred (LP) environments and a control with no associated break were included in a subsequent reinforcer assessment using a concurrent‐chains arrangement within a reversal design. Participants selected a multitask sequence (initial link) associated with one of the break environments. Phase A evaluated the reinforcing properties of all three breaks; the HP was removed in Phase B. Both participants allocated more responding to HP than LP, and to LP than control, suggesting that breaks functioned as reinforcers. The results indicated that preference assessment technology can be used to identify highly preferred breaks that function as reinforcers. Social validity measures indicated that the individuals' clinicians found the results useful for future clinical programming.     

Effects of shifts in food reinforcement context on rats’ consumption of concurrently available water or sucrose solution

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of signaled transitions from relatively rich to lean conditions of food reinforcement on drinking concurrently available water or sucrose‐sweetened water in rats. Past research demonstrated that these negative incentive shifts produce behavioral disruption in the form of extended pausing on fixed‐ratio schedules. Four male Long‐Evans rats operated on a two‐component multiple fixed‐ratio fixed‐ratio schedule. In one manipulation, the ratio was held constant and the components arranged either a large six‐pellet reinforcer (rich) or small one‐pellet reinforcer (lean). In a second manipulation, the components both produced a one‐pellet reinforcer but differed in terms of the ratio requirement, with the rich and lean conditions corresponding to relatively small and large ratios. In both manipulations, components were pseudorandomly presented to arrange four transitions signaled by retractable levers: lean‐to‐lean, lean‐to‐rich, rich‐to‐rich, and rich‐to‐lean (the negative incentive shift). During experimental conditions, a bottle with lickometer was inserted in the chamber, providing concurrent access either to tap water or a 10% sucrose solution. The negative incentive shift produced considerably more drinking than the other transitions in all rats during both manipulations. The level of drinking was not polydipsic; rather, it appears that the negative incentive shift enhanced the value of concurrently available reinforcers relative to food reinforcement.     

Reinforcement value and fixed‐interval performance

The concept of reinforcement value summarizes the effect of different variables, such as reinforcement delay, reinforcement magnitude, and deprivation level, on behavior. In the present set of experiments, we evaluated the effect of reinforcement devaluation on performance under FI schedules. The literature on timing and reinforcement value suggests that devaluation generates longer expected times to reinforcement than the same intervals trained under control conditions. We devalued reinforcement with delay in Experiments 1A, 1B, and 2, and diminished deprivation in Experiments 3A and 3B. Devaluation reduced response rates, increased the number of one‐response intervals, and lengthened postreinforcement pauses, but had inconsistent effects on other timing measures such as quarter life and breakpoint. The results of delayed reinforcement and diminished deprivation manipulations are well summarized as reinforcement devaluation effects. These results suggest that devaluation may reduce stimulus control. In addition, we argue that the process by which delayed reinforcement affects behavior might also explain some effects observed in other devaluation procedures through the concept of reinforcement value.     

善因营销的捐赠水平与消费者态度:一个有中介的调节效应模型检验

通过两个实验,探讨了善因营销的捐赠水平对消费者态度的影响,尤其是考察了道德提升感的中介作用以及产品-公益事业拟合度的调节作用。研究发现,善因营销的捐赠水平对消费者态度有显著的正向影响,且道德提升感在捐赠水平与消费者态度之间起中介作用。与此同时,产品-公益事业拟合度显著地调节了捐赠水平与道德提升感的关系,且该调节关系通过道德提升感的中介作用来进一步影响消费者态度。     

不同反应重复量对反应抑制后效应的影响*

研究不同反应重复量对反应抑制后效应的影响。采用停止信号范式,让被试完成不同反应重复量的反应抑制任务。结果显示,总的来说反应重复量因素和重复类型因素的主效应都显著;信号抑制条件下重复一次后比重复三次后无信号试次反应时要显著地长,但都与总的无信号试次反应时没有显著差异;信号反应条件下重复三次后与重复一次后无信号试次反应时没有显著差异,但都比总的无信号试次反应时显著地长。结果表明,不同反应重复量反应抑制后效应在信号抑制条件下既有认知控制调整也有自动化记忆提取,在信号反应条件下仅存在认知控制的执行加工。     

An exploratory analysis of task-interspersal procedures while teaching object labels to children with autism

Research has demonstrated that interspersing mastered tasks with new tasks facilitates learning under certain conditions; however, little is known about factors that influence the effectiveness of this treatment strategy. The initial purpose of the current investigation was to evaluate the effects of similar versus dissimilar interspersed tasks while teaching object labels to children diagnosed with autism or developmental delays. We then conducted a series of exploratory analyses involving the type of reinforcer delivered for correct responses on trials with unknown or known object labels. Performance was enhanced under the interspersal condition only when either brief praise was delivered for all correct responses or presumably more preferred reinforcers were provided for performance on known trials rather than on unknown trials.