Preschoolers’ Distributive Justice When They Distribute Few Total Rewards in a Third‐Party Task

Five‐year‐old children were presented with a story in which one character made three origami stars and another made nine. Then the participants were asked to distribute small rewards to each character (“Three” or “Four” candies), and were told to use all the candies (“All” instruction), or that “You can leave some candies, if you don't want to use all the candies (‘Partial’ instruction).” In Study 1, almost all children distributed the candies equally (Four). Some participants (28.1%) refused the All instruction for Three, and then equally distributed the candies. They conducted equality allocations in three or all four of the conditions, giving a ratio for “Thorough Egalitarians” of 20–30%. Study 2 used looking‐time measures to assess participants’ judgment. Children looked longer at the amounts of production of two characters in condition Three than in condition Four. Allocation patterns were almost identical to Study 1, but the condition “Partial‐Three” results were not reproduced. The paper discusses the types of egalitarian behavior and the associated production and reward quantities observed.     

Too many Asians in universities? The effect of social dominance orientation on support for admissions limits

This paper tests the hypothesis that support for limits on the admission of Asian students into universities is motivated by people’s social motivation—namely, the desire to maintain the status hierarchy. Study 1 found that, among participants who evaluated a proposed limit to the number of Asian applicants admitted to universities, social dominance orientation (SDO) was positively related to policy support. Conversely, among participants who evaluated a proposed limit on White admits, SDO was negatively related to policy support. Study 2 found that the perceived threat of the group getting admitted at high rates explained differential support of policies that seek to limit group-specific admissions. In all, these findings suggest that attitudes toward changes in campus demographics may be rooted in a desire to maintain the status hierarchy.     

父母心理控制与青少年焦虑的关系:一项交叉滞后研究

采用交叉滞后设计,以父母心理控制问卷和儿童显在焦虑量表为研究工具,对北京市13所中学1419名初一学生进行了连续三年的追踪测查,探讨父母心理控制与青少年焦虑之间的关系。结果表明：（1）三年间父母心理控制和青少年焦虑之间均呈显著正相关;（2）父母心理控制与青少年焦虑的关系基本符合互惠效应模型,且相比于父母效应,儿童效应更稳定,表现为：初一的青少年焦虑能显著正向预测初二的父母心理控制,同时,初二的青少年焦虑也能显著正向预测初三的父母心理控制;但只有初二的父母心理控制可以显著正向预测初三的青少年焦虑;（3）父母心理控制和青少年焦虑的互惠效应模型不存在显著的儿童性别差异。     

Comparing implicit and explicit attitudes of gay,straight, and non-monosexual groups toward transmen and transwomen

Background: Transphobia studies have typically relied on self-report measures from heterosexual samples. However, there is evidence suggesting the need to use indirect measures and to explore transphobia among other populations. Aims: This study examined how explicit and implicit attitudes toward transwomen and transmen differ between people of different sexual orientations. Methods: Cisgender participants (N = 265) completed measures of explicit feelings toward transmen and transwomen, as well as Implicit Association Tests (IAT) for each group. Comparisons were made between 54 gay, 79 straight, and 132 non-monosexual (asexual, bisexual, pansexual) individuals. Results: An interaction was found between measurement type (explicit, implicit) and sexual orientation (straight, gay, non-monosexual). With regard to transmen, gay respondents’ explicit and implicit scores diverged such that they explicitly reported lower bias than their straight counterparts, but their Transmen-IAT showed an implicit preference for biological men over transmen. For attitudes toward transwomen, implicit measurement scores were consistently negative and did not differ by group. Gay participants also reported positive explicit attitudes toward transwomen, similar to non-monosexual people. Discussion: Overall, findings show that gay people tend to report positive attitudes toward transgender people explicitly, but tend to have implicit bias against both transmen and transwomen. Future studies need to explore the origins of these biases and how they relate to the complex interplay of sex, gender, and sexual orientation.     

大学生的自我差异与价值偏好

基于以往对自我透视和价值偏好的研究,本研究提出自我差异是引发价值偏好出现分离的原因之一。两项研究对这一假设进行了检验。结果发现：相对于害怕的可能自我,大学生在期望可能自我上体验到更大的差异;在可能自我差异激活后,理想主义价值在个体的价值系统中占据主导地位,而在当前自我差异激活后,实用主义价值占据主导地位;当下目标和当前自我同时启动时,与当下目标未启动时,两组个体对价值偏好无显著差异。     

Social dominance and the disassociation between explicit and implicit representations of equality

This study tested whether social dominance orientation (SDO) predicted a conceptual disassociation between explicit (declarative or propositional) attitudes about equality and implicit (automatic or associative) views of how representative New Zealand Europeans and Maori are of the New Zealand nation (N = 48 Europeans). Explicitly stated attitudes framing equality in terms of procedural justice or meritocratic treatment were positively correlated with individual differences in the implicit tendency to view New Zealand Europeans as exclusively representative of New Zealand. This tendency to explicitly frame equality as based on individual merit and to implicitly favour the dominant (European) ethnic group as representative of the nation was observed only among people high in SDO. Our analysis provides novel support for the position that meritocratic ideology is malleable and may be employed by those high in SDO to frame concepts of equality and justice in ways that suit their desire for group‐based dominance. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

自我效能感、社会比较与成就目标的关系研究

目的采用学业自我效能感问卷、社会比较量表和成就目标定向量表,选取湘潭地区中学生,共计403名有效被试为对象进行研究,探讨中学生自我效能感、社会比较与成就目标的关系。结果发现,不同性别、年级中学生在成就目标、自我效能感和社会比较上的存在显著性差异;中学生自我效能感、成就目标和社会比较有显著相关;自我效能感与社会比较对成就目标有显著预测作用。     

Effects of referential ambiguity,time constraints and addressee orientation on the production of morphologically complex words

In five experiments, participants were asked to describe unambiguously a target picture in a picture–picture paradigm. In the same-category condition, target (e.g., water bucket) and distractor picture (e.g., ice bucket) had identical names when their preferred, morphologically simple, name was used (e.g., bucket). The ensuing lexical ambiguity could be resolved by compound use (e.g., water bucket). Simple names sufficed as means of specification in other conditions, with distractors identical to the target, completely unrelated, or geometric figures. With standard timing parameters, participants produced mainly ambiguous answers in Experiment 1. An increase in available processing time hardly improved unambiguous responding (Experiment 2). A referential communication instruction (Experiment 3) increased the number of compound responses considerably, but morphologically simple answers still prevailed. Unambiguous responses outweighed ambiguous ones in Experiment 4, when timing parameters were further relaxed. Finally, the requirement to name both objects resulted in a nearly perfect ambiguity resolution (Experiment 5). Together, the results showed that speakers overcome lexical ambiguity only when time permits, when an addressee perspective is given and, most importantly, when their own speech overtly signals the ambiguity.     

Cognitive Load and the Equality Heuristic: A Two-Stage Model of Resource Overconsumption in Small Groups

Two studies were conducted to test a two-stage model of the psychological mechanisms underlying the overconsumption of scarce resources in small groups. The model proposes that members of groups sharing resources first anchor their consumption choices on an “equal-division” heuristic and then, given sufficient cognitive capacity, adjust their choices in a self-serving direction. The results from both studies support the model. The first study found that when faced with a common resource pool almost all group members expressed thoughts regarding equality; however, individuals with sufficient cognitive capacity requested more from the pool and expressed more task-relevant thoughts than individuals lacking the necessary cognitive resources. The second study provided additional support for the two-stage model by demonstrating that group members' cognitions occur in the order predicted by the model and by demonstrating that an individual difference, social value orientation, affects thought processes only when individuals are not experiencing high cognitive loads. Implications are discussed.     

Separating item-related electrophysiological indices of retrieval effort and retrieval orientation

The relationship between two classes of retrieval process-retrieval orientation and retrieval effort-was investigated using electrophysiological (ERP) and behavioural measures. ERPs were recorded during retrieval phases of exclusion tasks in which participants focused on retrieval of either phonological or semantic associates that were generated in a prior study phase. Participants were separated into two groups on the basis of the relative accuracy of their memory judgments in the retrieval tasks (high vs. low relative difficulty) as a means of assessing retrieval effort. The critical contrasts were between the ERPs evoked by unstudied test items separated according to group and emphasis of the retrieval task (semantic vs. phonological). Reliable differences according to task were evident in the high relative difficulty group only. This finding is consistent with the view that, for this task pair at least, ERPs are sensitive to the processes set in train in pursuit of task relevant information (retrieval orientations) only when relative difficulty is high.