民族与种族社会化的概念、预测因素及理论模型

民族与种族社会化是美国少数民族家庭教养的核心成分, 是父母向子女传递种族和民族特征等信息, 促进子女社会适应的过程。子女的年龄、性别、父母与子女的受歧视经历等影响着父母对子女的民族与种族社会化的内容和时机。目前, 民族与种族社会化运作机制模型的建构, 使民族与种族社会化和青少年的民族认同、自尊、心理健康、学业表现等许多研究得以整合到一个研究范畴之下, 反映出民族与种族社会化研究的重要进展。     

Génesis de la conciencia racial: un estudio sobre identificación y actitudes hacia el color de piel en niños de tres a once años

Resumen

En este artículo exponemos un estudio con 504 niños españoles de 3 a 11 años cuyo objetivo ha sido identificar las primeras manifestaciones de conciencia étnico-racial y su dsarrollo en la infancia, un problema abordado por multitud de investigadores en diversos países, desde décadas atrás (Aboud, 1988, Milner, 1984), pero nuevo en el nuestro. Abordamos el estudio con un enfoque metodológico relativamente diferente de los clásicos. Diseñamos una entrevista semiestructurada con material pictórico y preguntas para obtener información sobre la orientación de los niños hacia el color de piel de las personas (sus preferencias, rechazos y su propia identificación), considerando tanto sus conductas de elección como las justificaciones que proporcionan.

Nuestros resultados revelan: a) relaciones curvilíneas entre edad y preferencia por el propio color de piel, y entre edad y rechazo a la figura de color negro. Hacia los 6–7 años, la orientación de los niños es marcadamente pro-blanco y anti-negro. A partir de los 9 años, se modifica no tanto el porcentaje de rechazo a otros grupos, sino los argumentos que ofrecen. b) En cuanto a la identificación del propio color de piel, hay una relación lineal entre ésta y la edad. No obstante, se observa un amplio desfase entre lo que parece ser una idntificación correcta del propio color (hacia los 5 años) y la toma de conciencia explícita de ese criterio (8 años). Los resultados se comparan con los de otros autores y se discuten en términos de fases en la toma de conciencia étnico-racial (Piaget, 1974, Karmiloff-Smith, 1992).     

Anger: Scary Good

I argue that recent attempts to vindicate blame have failed to fully face the vengeful feelings and angry outbursts that have led to scepticism about blame’s ethical status. This paper endeavours to fill that gap. I claim that feelings of angry blame are characteristically responsive to threats to social status, and that angry expressions are distinctive because of their scariness. Still, I conclude, there is an important place for angry blame in good lives and good relationships. In offering a defence of angry feelings and expressions, I argue that blame’s seemingly objectionable features are crucial to its expressive and restorative power.     

The Effect of Cognitive Complexity and Nature of the Outcome on Causal Attribution

Because even subtle forms of racial discrimination can damage well-being, identifying individual differences that shape this stress process is important. Dispositional forgiveness has been shown to influence how people perceive and react to interpersonal transgressions, yet its role in the context of racial discrimination has not received much research attention. In the current study, participants completed an initial measure of dispositional forgiveness and then considered a scenario that could be deemed racially discriminatory. Next, participants' perceptions of the scenario, negative affect, and cognitive performance were assessed. Dispositional forgiveness predicted all three outcomes such that more forgiving individuals were less likely to view the event as racially discriminatory and showed lower negative affect and greater cognitive performance after reading the scenario. Moreover, race moderated these relationships such that forgiveness played a more beneficial role for ethnic minorities than for whites.     

Public Support for Political Compromise on a Volatile Racial Issue: Insight from the Survey Experiment

In 2000, South Carolina officials, after years of political wrangling over the flying of the Confederate flag over the state capitol, finally removed it, placing it at a Confederate monument on the statehouse grounds. Here, via iterative survey experimentation, I look at the public response to the political compromise required to bring down the flag. I show that the public did respond positively to the multifaceted compromise and that black flag opponents were much more likely than white flag proponents to support the compromise. I also show that more white flag proponents can be swayed to support the compromise if they understand that it is supported by a majority of South Carolinians, thus breaking their misperception of the issue. Flag proponents, however, do not respond more positively to compromise simply because it is the by‐product of white and black negotiations. The political process necessarily evokes competitive intergroup attitudes. Can we think about process in a way that redirects these attitudes and makes political compromise more acceptable?     

The Minimal Cue Hypothesis: How Black Candidates Cue Race to Increase White Voting Participation

Racial group interests can compete in politics. One way competition may occur is when Black candidates cue racial thinking among Whites, leading to rivalry at the ballot box. I address this hypothesis with theories of identity, affect, and racial cognition. I argue that Black Congressional candidates cue these factors among Whites, leading the factors of White racial prejudice and White race liberalism to impact Whites' voting participation. I employ logistic regression analysis of data from the American National Election Study in 1988, 1992, and 2000. The effects of racial prejudice on the predicted probability of voting occur among all Whites, as well as White Republicans, White Democrats, and White conservatives. The effects of White race liberalism occur among all Whites, as well as White Democrats and White liberals. The effects are strongest when Whites are in elections with Black candidates that are either challengers or in open seats.     

Towards Culturally Relevant Preventive Interventions: The Consideration of Racial Socialization in Parent Training with African American Families

We present a rationale for the inclusion of culture-based parenting practices (i.e., racial socialization) in the design and implementation of empirically based parenting programs with African American families. We begin with a discussion of the limitations of the current parent training literature related to cultural considerations. Second, we examine the cultural and racial contexts of parenting for African Americans, review the literature on racial socialization, and discuss empirical support for considering its inclusion in parent training programs. Third, we examine the extent to which racial socialization operates in low-income African American families by presenting the findings from a qualitative pilot. We conclude by discussing how findings from the qualitative pilot might inform intervention efforts.     

Teacher Racism,Academic Self‐Concept,and Multiculturation: Investigating Adaptive and Maladaptive Relations With Academic Disengagement and Self‐Sabotage for Indigenous and Non‐Indigenous Australian Students

The issue of patterns of educational disengagement for Indigenous Australian students has long been of considerable concern within Indigenous education research. Although there is an expanding research base identifying factors that may increase (or decrease) the risk of disengagement for Indigenous students, little acknowledgement has been given to international research highlighting how stigma and discrimination may be associated with student disengagement and the resiliency factors that may nullify these associations. Utilising a sample of 1,376 (305 Indigenous; 1,071 non‐Indigenous) students from five New South Wales high schools in Australia, this study sought to examine the influence of academic self‐concept and two culturally sensitive constructs—specifically, perceived multiculturation (perceived cultural respect) and racial discrimination—on two disengagement‐orientated outcomes: affective disengagement and self‐sabotaging behaviour (behavioural disengagement) for both Indigenous and non‐Indigenous students. The findings showed relatively consistent direct and positive effects of academic self‐concept and direct negative effect of teacher racism for both groups of students. An interaction effect (discrimination × multiculturation) for the Indigenous students only was also identified, which suggested that the negative effects of racial discrimination on self‐sabotaging behaviour are exacerbated when the Indigenous students perceived higher levels of cultural respect from others. Overall, while these findings suggest that promoting higher levels of inter‐cultural respect may be beneficial for Indigenous and non‐Indigenous alike (e.g., culturally inclusive programmes), such positive perceptions may put Indigenous students at greater risk if the impact of racism is not also addressed. The implications of these findings suggest that cultural safety must be framed both in promoting the positive (cultural respect) and in eliminating the negative (racism).