Responding on concurrent-chains schedules in open and closed economies.

Pigeons' key pecks were reinforced according to concurrent-chains schedules of reinforcement. The programmed average time from the onset of the initial links to a terminal link entry was held constant across conditions while the value of variable-interval schedules in the terminal links was varied. Performance was assessed under two economic conditions: (a) an open economy in which session duration was limited to 1 hr and subjects were maintained at 80% of their free-feeding body weights with postsession food when necessary; and (b) a closed economy in which sessions were 23.5 hr long and no deprivation regimen was in effect. In all cases, the relative rate of responding in the initial links matched the reduction in overall delay to primary reinforcement correlated with entry into one terminal link relative to the reduction in delay correlated with entry into the other terminal link. Although the sum of responses made in the initial links and terminal links was found to increase, then decrease, as the rate of food presentation decreased in the closed economy, there was no consistent effect of overall rate of food presentation on total responding in the open economy. The choice data suggest that relative delay reduction predicts choice accurately, regardless of economic context.     

Reinforcing effects of caffeine in coffee and capsules.

In a residential research ward the reinforcing and subjective effects of caffeine were studied under double-blind conditions in volunteer subjects with histories of heavy coffee drinking. In Experiment 1, 6 subjects had 13 opportunities each day to self-administer either a caffeine (100 mg) or a placebo capsule for periods of 14 to 61 days. All subjects developed a clear preference for caffeine, with intake of caffeine becoming relatively stable after preference had been attained. Preference for caffeine was demonstrated whether or not preference testing was preceded by a period of 10 to 37 days of caffeine abstinence, suggesting that a recent history of heavy caffeine intake (tolerance/dependence) was not a necessary condition for caffeine to function as a reinforcer. In Experiment 2, 6 subjects had 10 opportunities each day to self-administer a cup of coffee or (on different days) a capsule, dependent upon completing a work requirement that progressively increased and then decreased over days. Each day, one of four conditions was studied: caffeinated coffee (100 mg/cup), decaffeinated coffee, caffeine capsules (100 mg/capsule), or placebo capsules. Caffeinated coffee maintained the most self-administration, significantly higher than decaffeinated coffee and placebo capsules but not different from caffeine capsules. Both decaffeinated coffee and caffeine capsules were significantly higher than placebo capsules but not different from each other. In both experiments, subject ratings of "linking" of coffee or capsules covaried with the self-administration measures. These experiments provide the clearest demonstrations to date of the reinforcing effects of caffeine in capsules and in coffee.     

When Manipulation Gets Personal

Many accounts of moral responsibility have emerged recently that question the importance of conscious choice for moral responsibility. Instead of this ‘volitional’ requirement, these ‘attributionist’ accounts claim that agents are responsible for their actions when their actions reflect who they are and what they value. This paper argues that attributionist accounts are too quick to dismiss the connection between volition and moral responsibility. By excising conscious control from their accounts, attributionists leave open the undesirable possibility that an agent may fulfil all necessary conditions for moral responsibility even when she is under the conscious control of another person. Through analyzing situations in which attributionist conditions for moral responsibility are met while an agent is controlled by someone else, the link between an agent's volition and her moral responsibility becomes more apparent.     

German students’ current choice of profession in the field of psychotherapy

The psychoanalytic societies in Germany as in many other countries are concerned by a decline in the number of candidates for full psychoanalytic training. While this situation is partly attributable to changes both in society and in educational and healthcare systems, it is questionable whether psychoanalytic training institutions have yet found adequate responses to it. Under the banner of ‘evidence‐based treatment’, behaviour therapy has come to be widely disseminated, with major implications for the teaching of different psychotherapy paradigms at universities. To investigate the determinants of this trend in the specific German situation, a large‐scale, multi‐method exploratory study supported by IPA's DPPT programme was undertaken, focusing on the reasons given by a population (N = 679) of German psychology, medical, and education students for embarking on training in psychoanalysis or behaviour therapy. The results suggest that behaviour therapy is more compatible with the prevailing scientific understanding and with current societal and cultural trends, owing in part to inadequacies or bias in university teaching of the various paradigms of psychotherapy. While most of the psychology students expressed a preference for behavioural training, the psychotherapy option proved less attractive for their counterparts in the fields of medicine and education. Semi‐standardized qualitative interviews were used to gain a deeper understanding of the students’ decisions for or against training in a specific paradigm, and led to the identification of seven decision‐making prototypes. Possible reasons for the students’ decisions are discussed, and concrete proposals and recommendations are presented.     

Choice of Weapon or Weapon of Choice? Examining the Interactions between Victim Characteristics in Single‐victim Male Sexual Homicide Offenders

As most studies report that the majority of sexual homicide offenders (SHOs) prefer to kill with their own hands, research has largely neglected to examine the choice of weapon by these offenders. The US Supplementary Homicide Reports show that although a large number of SHOs murder their victim using personal weapons (e.g. bare hands and manual or ligature strangulation), the majority use an alternative weapon (e.g. edged weapons, contact weapons, and firearms). The present study hypothesises that the choice of weapon is in part influenced by victim characteristics. To identify specific combinations and interactions between victim characteristics and the choice of a personal or edged weapon during the commission of a sexual homicide, a combination of exhaustive chi‐square automatic interaction detector and conjunctive analysis is used on a sample of 2,472 single‐victim male SHOs from a 36‐year period of Supplementary Homicide Report data (1976–2011). Findings show that SHOs choose their weapon according to some victim characteristics. Implications of the findings are discussed in light of police suspect prioritisation. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Goal priming,public transportation habit and travel mode selection: The moderating role of trait mindfulness

Habits in travel mode occur in a stable context and create strong links between travel goals and travel modes in memory. As a consequence, priming a travel goal (i.e., going to a place) in memory increases the accessibility of the associated travel mode among habitual users of this transportation mode. We posit that individual differences in attention to present moment and experience (dispositional mindfulness construct; Brown & Ryan, 2003) could moderate the interaction between travel goal priming and habit strength. In this study, habitual vs. non-habitual users of a subway line were nonconsciously primed with travel goals that were strongly associated with the use of a subway line. In the second part of the study, participants chose, among four travel modes, the one(s) that allowed reaching a specific place. Priming and habit strength contributed non-additively to decision times, but among low-mindfulness participants only. Among non-habitual users, priming speeded decisions at high levels of mindfulness, but slowed decisions at low levels of mindfulness. From a fundamental and applied point of view, discussion focuses on processes crossing habits, non-deliberated responses to environmental cues, and mindfulness.     

Exploring the Relationship between Adolescent Activities and Choice of Graduate School Discipline: Implications for Creativity Development

The relationship between adolescent extra‐curricular activities and choice of graduate‐education field was examined among students from three fields of study, science (n = 12), art (n = 12), and education (n = 14), using qualitative and quantitative methods. Results of profile analysis indicated that the different majors participated in stereotypically varying activities when they were adolescents. Science majors generally participated in mathematics and science activities during adolescence. Art majors generally participated in theater and music activities, and education majors tended to have participated in social leadership and educational activities. Interviews with the participants supported these findings and provided a more comprehensive discussion of these tendencies. While in high school, the participants had many influences when determining a field of study. Using personal happiness as a guide, the participants chose activities and ultimately graduate‐level majors that reflected their interests. It was concluded that adolescent extra‐curricular activities are important in the development of interest in creatively talented individuals and may lead to graduate field selection.     

Animal models of source memory

Source memory is the aspect of episodic memory that encodes the origin (i.e., source) of information acquired in the past. Episodic memory (i.e., our memories for unique personal past events) typically involves source memory because those memories focus on the origin of previous events. Source memory is at work when, for example, someone tells a favorite joke to a person while avoiding retelling the joke to the friend who originally shared the joke. Importantly, source memory permits differentiation of one episodic memory from another because source memory includes features that were present when the different memories were formed. This article reviews recent efforts to develop an animal model of source memory using rats. Experiments are reviewed which suggest that source memory is dissociated from other forms of memory. The review highlights strengths and weaknesses of a number of animal models of episodic memory. Animal models of source memory may be used to probe the biological bases of memory. Moreover, these models can be combined with genetic models of Alzheimer's disease to evaluate pharmacotherapies that ultimately have the potential to improve memory.     

任务呈现方式、双任务反应顺序影响算术估算策略选择与执行

采用选择/无选范式,通过操纵任务呈现方式(估算题目的数字消失与否)与主次任务反应顺序(先反应算术任务或先反应字母任务),考察了双任务协调在算术策略选择与执行中的潜在作用。结果显示:(1)不同双任务呈现情境中个体的算术策略表现有明显区别。算术题目数字不消失相比消失时,个体对主、次任务的回答正确率都比较低,在策略选择上更倾向于选择较简单策略,在策略执行上准确性偏低;(2)双任务反应顺序会影响算术策略运用表现。先反应算术任务时,双任务情境只影响策略执行的准确性;而先反应字母任务时,双任务情境对策略执行的准确性和反应速度均发挥干扰作用,且估算题目的数字消失与否对策略选择准确性的影响更大,策略选择适应性之间的差异亦更加明显。上述发现对于深入理解双任务协调功能在策略运用中的作用机制具有重要意义。     

CONFESSIONS OF A LATE‐BLOOMING, “MISEDUCATED” PHILOSOPHER OF SCIENCE

This article provides a survey of Walker Percy's criticism of what Pope Benedict XVI calls “scientificity,” which entails a constriction of the dynamic interaction of faith and reason. The process can result in the diminishment of ethical considerations raised by science's impact on public policy. Beginning in the 1950s, Percy begins speculating about the negative influence of scientificity. The threat of a political regime using weapons of mass destruction is only one of several menacing developments. The desacrilization of human life from cradle to grave leads Percy to assert that modern science's impact is often radically incoherent. In The Moviegoer, Percy finds his existential and theistic voice that would enable him to advance his critique of science.