Dissociating effects of subclinical anxiety and depression on cognitive control

Even at subclinical levels, anxiety and depression are associated with impaired cognitive control. It is unclear, though, to what extent these deficits reflect a common underlying dysfunction. Using a non-affective hybrid masked prime-Simon task, we obtained several measures of within- and between- trial inhibitory behavioral control in 80 young, healthy volunteers, together with measures of their anxiety and depression levels. Neither depression nor anxiety affected low-level within-trial control, or any of the between-trial control measures. However, increased levels of depression, but not of anxiety, were associated with impaired high-level within-trial control (increased Simon effect). Results indicate that depression, but not anxiety, impairs voluntary online response-control mechanisms independent of affective content.     

Bottom-up and top-down dynamics in young children's executive function: Labels aid 3-year-olds’ performance on the Dimensional Change Card Sort

Executive function (EF) improves between the ages of 3 and 5 and has been assessed reliably using the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS), a task in which children first sort bivalent cards by one dimension (e.g., shape) and then are instructed to sort by a different dimension (e.g., color). Three-year-olds typically perseverate on the pre-switch dimension, whereas 5-year-olds switch flexibly. Labeling task stimuli can facilitate EF performance (0110 and 0060), but the nature of this effect is unclear. In 3 experiments we examined 2 hypotheses deriving from different theoretical perspectives: first, that labels facilitate performance in a more bottom-up fashion, by biasing attention to relevant task rules (Kirkham et al., 2003); and second, that labels aid performance in a more top-down fashion by prompting reflection and an understanding of the hierarchical nature of the task (Zelazo, 2004). Children performed better on the DCCS when labels referred to the relevant sorting dimension (Experiment 1). This was a function of the content of the labels rather than the change in auditory signal across phases (Experiment 2). Furthermore, labeling the opposite dimension only did not have a symmetrically negative effect on performance (Experiment 3). Together, these results suggest external, verbal labels bias children to attend to task-relevant information, likely through interaction with emerging top-down, endogenous control.     

A naturalistic study of prospective memory in preschoolers: The role of task interruption and motivation

We conducted two naturalistic experiments to investigate preschoolers’ development of event-based prospective memory (PM) and to examine the effects of motivation and interruption of an ongoing task. Children aged 2–6 years were asked to perform familiar PM tasks while engaged in their habitual kindergarten play. PM performance improved systematically across the preschool years. The type of PM response (motor or verbal) did not affect performance. High motivation was necessary for 2-year-olds to perform well, and it remained an important factor that increased performance across the entire preschool age range. The need to interrupt an ongoing activity decreased performance in 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds, but not in children aged 2 or 6 years. The pattern of results is consistent with explanations for interruption effects that highlight the role of inhibitory control.     

Testing for Deterministic Salesperson Attributes in Mature Markets

Abstract

Individual, buying center members seek to acquire a bundle of attributes that satisfy the needs of their organization in a manner similar to that of consumers. For companies in mature industries, it is proposed that sales representative- related attributes may be more important than product- or company-related attributes when customers evaluate alternative suppliers. In fact, these attributes may determine ultimate supplier selection and purchase. Data from an industrial positioning study conducted by a major industrial firm supplying consumable operating supplies supports this contention. Managerial implications are also discussed.     

The Effect of Rehabilitation on Positive Interpretations of Illness

Postoperative patients received one of the three, alternative pain-management treatments: patient-controlled analgesia (PCA); perceived PCA (PPCA without actual control) and continuous intravenous infusion of analgesics (CII). Pain reports, morphine consumption and satisfaction of the groups were compared, and influences of individual differences in preferences for control and trait anxiety were tested. The main findings were: (1) PCA patients consumed less morphine and reported more pain and somewhat higher satisfaction; (2) PPCA patients were intermediate between the other two groups in pain reports and morphine consumption and lowest in satisfaction and (3) individual differences did not moderate the effects of PCA. The findings were interpreted as indicating that the main effect of PCA is increased pain tolerance, and that a bio-psycho-social framework is most appropriate to explain these effects.     

Changes in self-regulatory cognitions as predictors of changes in smoking and nutrition behaviour

Most longitudinal, correlational studies on health-behaviour change examine effects of Time1 social-cognitive predictors on subsequent behaviour. In contrast, our research focusses on associations between changes in predictors with change in behaviour. The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) distinguishes between motivational predictors for intention formation and volitional predictors for behavioural change and served as theoretical basis. Two online-studies were launched targeting different behaviours (low-fat diet, smoking), different samples (Study 1: N = 469; Study 2: N = 441) and different time spans (Study 1: 3 months, Study 2: 4 weeks). Data were analysed by means of structural equation modelling with latent difference scores. Both studies resulted in almost parallel prediction patterns. Change in risk awareness and change in outcome expectancies did not result in change in intentions, whereas change in self-efficacy was of crucial importance. Change in behaviour was associated with change in action planning and action control over and above the effects of intentions. In one study, increases in self-efficacy yielded increases in behaviour change. Results demonstrate that change in action planning and especially action control was of great importance for behaviour change across two different behaviours. Analysing change in social-cognitive predictors allows drawing precise conclusions for interventions.     

Predicting adolescent health complaints by personality and Behaviors

Abstract

In a sample of 97 male adolescents, individual differences in health complaints were predicted by personality traits and by self-reported health/risk behaviors. Anxiety and loneliness were measured at Times 1 and 2, and health locus of control, various behaviors and health complaints were assessed at the end of the two-year study. A causal model was specified, employing anxiety and loneliness as distal predictors, health locus of control and behaviors as proximal predictors of health complaints. It turned out that anxiety was the most powerful single predictor, and that loneliness exerted a direct effect on health locus of control and behaviors and an indirect effect on health complaints. Risk behavior as well as health behavior were related to complaints. Social integration facilitated not only health behavior but also risk behavior.     

Self-blame attributions,control appraisals and distress among cardiac rehabilitation patients

This study examined associations between self-blame attributions, control appraisals and distress among cardiovascular disease patients participating in a cardiac rehabilitation (CR) programme. Questionnaire data were collected from 129 patients at the beginning and end of CR. We found little evidence that characterological self-blame (CSB) affects distress symptoms, but behavioural self-blame at the beginning of CR was positively associated with distress symptoms concurrently, and 12 weeks later. Furthermore, diet- and exercise-focused self-blame was only modestly, positively related to control appraisals concurrently, while CSB was negatively associated with control. Prospectively, we found few significant associations between self-blame and control. Results imply that making any type of self-blame attribution during CR does not aid in adjustment or enhanced control appraisals. Our findings suggest that CR staff should encourage patients to recognise their control over reducing risk for recurrence, but should discourage patients from looking backward and ruminating about factors that may have contributed to disease onset.     

Stigma and hostility towards pregnant smokers: Does individuating information reduce the effect?

Australia is at the forefront of tobacco control, yet 17% of Australian women smoke during pregnancy. Negative attitudes to smoking are intensified when the smoker is pregnant, consistent with a discourse that encourages surveillance of pregnant women. Such overt anti-smoking attitudes create a context which may make it difficult for pregnant smokers to seek assistance to stop. However, there is little evidence on the extent to which pregnant smokers are stigmatised by community members. We used vignettes to examine the degree of smoking-related stigma expressed by 595 Australian university students who rated a woman, described as a mother who was smoking or not, and pregnant or not. Further, we examined whether provision of individuating information reduced the degree of stigma. Mothers described as smokers were rated more negatively than those not, particularly if they were pregnant: smokers were perceived as unhealthy, and also as bad mothers. Provision of individuating information slightly reduced these effects. These findings support the view that smokers – particularly if pregnant – are subject to negative moral judgement. Our findings contribute to the ethical debate about stigma-inducing tobacco control efforts, and suggest that anti-smoking campaigns that contextualise smoking in pregnancy might reduce stigma and assist cessation.     

The development of a smoking-specific locus of control scale

Abstract

A 32-item questionnaire was designed to measure multidimensional locus of control beliefs specifically about giving up smoking (SLC Scale), and administered along with the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC) and a short smoking information questionnaire to 211 smokers. Psychometric analyses of the SLC scales included a series of repeated factor and reliability analyses which resulted in a final three-factor solution, containing 11 of the original SLC items. The three factors represented the following types of locus of control for smoking: a combined Internal-Chance factor, a Significant Others factor, and a Powerful Others factor with Chronbach's alpha coefficients of internal reliability of 0.63, 0.56 and 0.55 respectively. Analyses relating to the reliability and validity of the SLC scale are presented and discussed. As expected the SLC correlated more sensibly and significantly with subjects' reported behaviour and intentions regarding giving up smoking than did the MHLC scales.