信息的性质对内隐社会印象的影响

为了考察信息的性质对社会印象的影响,通过语义差异法建构了具有六个维度的社会印象量表;采用２×２×８的混合设计,给被试提供自然信息和七类不同性质的社会信息（组内设计）,考察了评价人和被评价人性别特征（组间设计）在社会印象形成过程中的作用;同时,还测量了被试的外显性别态度。结果表明,在否定个人智慧、社会地位、性别特征和品质特征时,所形成的社会印象在被评价人性别特征上表现出了差异,并且男女被试都表现出了“好人主义”倾向;在外显性别态度上男女被试设有差异;此外,还分析了用语义差异法测量内隐社会印象的适用性。     

A test of the reinforcing properties of stimuli correlated with nonreinforcement

The information hypothesis of conditioned reinforcement predicts that a stimulus that “reduces uncertainty” about the outcome of a trial will acquire reinforcing properties, even when the stimulus reliably predicts nonreinforcement. Four pigeons' key pecks produced one of two 5-sec stimuli with 0.50 probability according to a discriminated variable-interval schedule. One stimulus was followed by reinforcement; a second stimulus was followed by blackout. To the same extent, therefore, both stimuli reduced uncertainty about the possibility that food would arrive at the termination of the schedule interval. When a second key in the chamber was lighted, each peck on it could produce the stimulus preceding reinforcement, the stimulus preceding nonreinforcement, a novel stimulus, or no stimulus, across separate conditions. The stimulus preceding food maintained responding at substantial levels on the second, stimulus-producing, key. Such responding was not maintained by other stimuli. These data, replicated when the stimuli were reversed on the variable-interval schedule, do not support the prediction that uncertainty-reducing stimuli are necessarily conditioned reinforcers.     

The blocking of reinforcement control

Two experiments were conducted to extend the blocking effect to the reinforcement of a response. A delayed reinforcement contingency was presented to subjects with or without a previously pretrained response available during the delay interval. The interpolated response had no scheduled effect on delivery of the reinforcer, but its availability reduced strengthening of the initial response, which completely extinguished for some subjects. The results were interpreted as support for blocking as a fundamental principle of behavior, and as evidence against the principle of reinforcement being stated solely in terms of temporal proximity between response and reinforcer.     

Human observing: Maintained by stimuli correlated with reinforcement but not extinction

College students received points exchangeable for money (reinforcement) on a variable-time 60-second schedule that alternated randomly with an extinction component. Subjects were informed that responding would not influence either the rate or distribution of reinforcement. Instead, presses on either of two levers (“observing responses”) produced stimuli. In each of four experiments, stimuli positively correlated with reinforcement and/or stimuli uncorrelated with reinforcement were each chosen over stimuli correlated with extinction. These results are consistent with prior results from pigeons in supporting the conditioned-reinforcement hypothesis of observing and in not supporting the uncertainty-reduction hypothesis.     

The need for contextual and technical knowledge in judgmental forecasting

The purpose of this research is to assess the extent to which judgmental forecasts are improved by having more contextual and technical knowledge. Contextual information is knowledge gained by practitioners through experience on the job, consisting of general forecasting experience in the industry as well as specific product knowledge. Technical knowledge is knowledge about data analysis and formal forecasting procedures, including information on how to analyze data judgmentally. We directly compared judgmental forecasts of business practitioners with those generated by students, using 22 real-world time series. The practitioners had considerable contextual but no technical knowledge. The students had no contextual but two different levels of technical knowledge. We also generated forecasts with statistical methods to benchmark performance. Results show that contextual knowledge is particularly important in making good judgmental forecasts, while technical knowledge has little value. Practitioner forecasts are better than student forecasts in almost all comparisons. A decisive factor affecting forecast performance appears to be data variability, measured by the coefficient of variation of the time-series data. As the variability of a time series increases, the performance of all forecasts deteriorates, but judgmental forecasts by practitioners become more preferable. Statistical methods have difficulty achieving reasonable forecasts when the data are more variable, whereas judgemental forecasts reinforced by contextual information do relatively well. Data variability is one explanation for the mixed findings of past studies, relative to how well statistical techniques compare with judgment as a forecasting method.     

Cognitive effects of mild head injury in children and adolescents

A comprehensive review of recent neuropsychological studies of mild head injury (MHI) involving children and adolescents is presented. The seminal work of Rutter and his colleagues is reviewed. An alternative conceptualization of MHI as proposed by various researchers is elaborated and further research investigating the cognitive sequelae of MHI is reviewed. MHI is discussed within the context of development and information processing models. Finally, the sequelae of MHI are reviewed with respect to academic functioning. Methodological problems inherent in studies of MHI are identified and discussed. The studies reviewed here support the conclusion that both the cognitive and emotional consequences of MHI should receive serious evaluation.     

人类颞叶皮层与视、听信息加工:Ⅰ、神经心理模型和左颞叶癫痫病人的认知功能

对37名被试的18项神经心理测验结果进行因素分析后得到4个主要因素:知觉组织、感觉注意、记忆和知觉运动。对比组t 考验发现左颞叶瘢痫病人的节律跟随和说话人识别测验得分明显低于普通外科病人,说明左颞叶癫痫病可能影响听觉运动和非言语复杂听觉信息加工的能力。     

时序信息提取特点的实验研究

时距区分性理论认为提取时序信息是在包含一定项目的检索系中检索抽样的过程,通道因素应当对正确率和速度都产生影响.本文分别以英文字母和汉字为材料,对时序信息的提取特点作了两个实验研究.结果表明,只有材料的呈现顺序对时序信息提取的正确率和速度都有影响,通道因素只影响提取的正确率,而速度则未受其影响。显然,用时距区分性理论来说明时序信息提取特点是缺乏足够证据的.本文提出,对时序信息提取机制尚值得进一步研究.     

Testing the reinforcing properties of S-: a replication of Lieberman''s procedure

A critical issue in testing theories of observing is whether the stimulus associated with extinction (the S-) reinforces observing responses. In previous experiments, subjects have been trained to make observing responses that produce both the S- and the stimulus correlated with reinforcement (the S+). Then, either the S+ or the S- has been withheld. Conflicting results have been attributed to differences among species. In the present experiments, pecking one key by master pigeons was reinforced with grain on a variable-ratio extinction schedule. Yoked pigeons received the grain on a variable-interval, extinction schedule controlled by the variable-ratio performances of the master birds. For both groups, concurrent pecking on a second key was reinforced on a variable-interval schedule with displays of discriminative stimuli. Subsequently, either the S+ or the S- was eliminated from the procedure. Omission of S+ produced a large decrease, as predicted by traditional conditioned reinforcement accounts of observing. By itself, S- did not maintain observing. A smaller and less reliable decrease, comparable to that obtained by Lieberman (1972) with rhesus monkeys, occurred when S- was eliminated. This replication with pigeons of Lieberman's results indicates that they are not species-specific, and the fact that observing was not maintained by S- alone suggests that the decrease obtained when S- was omitted is not attributable to the reinforcing power of S-.