Order effects in belief updating with consistent and inconsistent evidence

The current study tests for the presence of differential order effects in evaluation tasks with consistent and inconsistent evidence as predicted by the Hogarth and Einhorn (1992) belief-adjustment model. The results, based on both between-subjects and within-subjects experiments, demonstrate that there were significant recency effects with inconsistent evidence as predicted, larger recency effects when the inconsistent evidence was farther apart in subjective value as predicted, and significant recency effects even when subjects were given training designed to both help them understand the task as completely as possible and to be better able to assess the pieces of evidence. By including a within-subjects design, we were able to demonstrate that the difference in subjective value between two pieces of evidence is the primary factor influencing the magnitude of the recency effect, regardless of whether the evidence is consistent or inconsistent. This latter finding is unique and contrary to previous research and theory.     

时序信息的加工:自动还是控制

从长时记忆的角度出发,以故事的形式为实验材料,对时序信息的加工方式和通道效应进行了研究。结果表明,时序信息的加工存在视听通道效应,通道效应的机制源于记忆,且与加工方式有关。时序信息三个属性的加工方式不同：顺序属性倾向于自动加工;位置属性,就视觉信息来说倾问于自动加工,听觉在有顺序标码情况下倾向于自动加工、而在无顺序标码情况下则是一控制加工过程;间隔特性是一个控制加工过程。     

自由回忆和线索回忆测验中的系列位置效应

本文以96个中国汉字为材料,使用自由回忆和线索回忆测验方法,对20名被试进行6组分测验和最后所有汉字的总测验。发现自由回忆分测验中存在明显的系列位置效应,总测验出现负近因现象;线索回忆分测验也表现出明显的系列位置效应,但最后的总测验没有出现负近因现象。上述结果验证了Bjork和Whitten（1974）提出的顺序或情景理论。     

Data Smoothing: Prediction of Human Behavior, Detection of Behavioral Patterns, and Monitoring Treatment Effectiveness in Single-Subject Behavioral Studies

Data-smoothing can be particularly useful in predicting human behavior, detecting behavioral patterns, and monitoring treatment effectiveness in highly variable single-subject behavioral experiments that cannot be determined by only visual inspection of their graphs. Using an example from the applied behavior analytic literature, the use of moving-average and exponential data-smoothing aided the detection of the unique behavioral patterns of a child with autism across different treatments. Furthermore, the utility of the data-smoothing procedures to monitor and control the effectiveness of an intervention is discussed. The ease of their calculations suggest use of data-smoothing by behavior analysts whenever the effects of particular interventions are questionable.     

Nodality effects during equivalence class formation: An extension to sight-word reading and concept development

Three students with moderate disabilities were taught to read and match-to-sample sight words comprising stimulus sets based upon the four food groups. We taught students conditional discriminations within four four-member sets using a single-sample/four-comparison procedure. Students were taught A-B, B-C, and C-D conditional discriminations for each of the four potential stimulus classes. Subsequent probes tested for relations based upon symmetry and one-node and two-node transitivity. The performances for all students indicated that symmetric relations emerged before one-node transitive relations, and that one-node transitive relations emerged before two-node transitive relations. These results are consistent with a pattern of responding, referred to as a "nodality effect," in which relations with fewer nodes are demonstrated prior to the demonstration of relations with a greater number of nodes. These results extend this area of research to sight-word reading for students with moderate disabilities.     

Prevalence of the extinction burst and its attenuation during treatment

Although extinction has been an effective treatment for a variety of behavior disorders, its use may be associated with several adverse side effects, the most common being an initial increase in the frequency of the target response, called an "extinction burst." We attempted to determine the prevalence of the extinction burst in applied research and its possible attenuation with other operant procedures. An analysis of 113 sets of extinction data indicated that bursting may not be as common as previously assumed (it occurred in 24% of the cases) and may be less likely when extinction is implemented with alternative procedures rather than as the sole intervention (bursting was evident in 12% of the former cases and 36% of the latter).     

An extension of the partial credit model with an application to the measurement of change

The partial credit model is considered under the assumption of a certain linear decomposition of the item × category parameters _ih into basic parameters _j. This model is referred to as the linear partial credit model. A conditional maximum likelihood algorithm for estimation of the j is presented, based on (a) recurrences for the combinatorial functions involved, and (b) using a quasi-Newton approach, the so-called Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno (BFGS) method; (a) guarantees numerically stable results, (b) avoids the direct computation of the Hesse matrix, yet produces a sequence of certain positive definite matricesB _k ,k=1, 2, ..., converging to the asymptotic variance-covariance matrix of the . The practicality of these numerical methods is demonstrated both by means of simulations and of an empirical application to the measurement of treatment effects in patients with psychosomatic disorders.The authors thank one anonymous reviewer for his constructive comments. Moreover, they thankfully acknowledge financial support by the Österreichische Nationalbank (Austrian National Bank) under Grant No. 3720.     

A PRELIMINARY PROCEDURE FOR PREDICTING THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT-BASED PROCEDURES

In the current investigation, a modification was made to the preference assessment described by Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, and Page (1985) to predict the effects of stimuli when used in a differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior (DRO) schedule for 2 clients with severe self-injurious behavior (SIB) and profound mental retardation. Based on the results of the preference assessment, three types of stimuli were identified: (a) high-preference stimuli associated with high rates of SIB (HP/HS), (b) high-preference stimuli associated with relatively lower rates of SIB (HP/LS), and (c) low-preference stimuli associated with low rates of SIB (LP/LS). Consistent with the results of the preference assessment, the DRO schedule with HP/HS stimuli resulted in increased SIB, and the DRO schedule with LP/LS stimuli resulted in no changes in SIB. HP/LS stimuli were demonstrated reinforcers but did not result in a change in SIB when used in a DRO schedule. Thus, the stimulus preference assessment may be useful clinically in some situations for predicting both the beneficial and the negative side effects of stimuli in DRO procedures.     

Procedural dependence in action memory: Effects of verb form and individual vs group conditions

Two experiments explored whether the magnitude of the enactment effect in action memory (i. e., higher recall with motor than with non-motor encoding) may depend upon the use of individual or group testing procedures. Nonmotor encoding instructions, requiring the subjects to listen to orally presented action items, were compared to instructions which also required enactment. With encoding treated as a within-subject factor, the observations failed to reveal any significant difference between individual and group testing. With encoding treated as a between-subject factor, the results showed an interaction between test and encoding conditions, such that an enactment effect was found only with group testing. Different support value for auditory cues in group and individual test situations was assumed to account for this difference. In a third experiment the indicative and imperative verb forms were compared. An interaction was observed, showing that in Norwegian, enacted verbs were remembered better when presented in the indicative than in the imperative. No corresponding difference was found under non-enactment conditions. For this finding, a social interaction interpretation was offered.     

关联性记忆错觉的产生与保持

两项实验对关联性记忆错觉的产生与保持进行了考察。实验结果表明,关联性记忆错觉接近学过词的回忆水平,但它的产生不随年龄的变化而变化;时间变量对关联性记忆错觉的影响不显著。此外,关联性记忆错觉不同于学过的词,在延迟加快时没有系列位置效应的产生。