Elicited responding to signals for reinforcement: the effects of overall versus local changes in reinforcement probability

Pigeons were studied on a three-component multiple schedule where all reinforcement was independent of responding. Two components were cued by different keylights and were associated with different rates of reinforcement. The third was always a no-key period associated with extinction. After a few sessions, pecking was elicited by the keylights signalling the reinforcement and continued to be maintained indefinitely. The duration and sequence of the three components were varied to determine if the primary controlling variable was differences in the overall probability of reinforcement, or if it was the immediate change in reinforcement signalled by the onset and/or offset of the stimulus. Both variables were found to control behavior. When 30-sec components were used, the primary controlling variable was the overall probability of reinforcement, but when 3-min components were used, overall probability had little effect. Control by local changes in reinforcement also occurred, although the type of local control varied both across subjects and experimental conditions. Some behaviors were controlled more by the change in reinforcement signalled by the onset of the stimulus, while others were controlled more by the change signalled by the offset of the stimulus.     

Retrospective questions and correlations

In survey research it is not uncommon to ask questions of the following type: “How many times did you undertake actiona in reference periodT of length τ?.” The relationship is established between τ and the correlation of the number of reported actions with some background variable. To this end it is assumed that the process of actions satisfies a renewal model with individual heterogeneity. Also a model has to be formulated for possible recall effects. Applications are given in the field of medical consumption.     

Sequential effects of interval duration on fixed-interval performance

The bar pressing of rats was reinforced on a multiple fixed-interval schedule. The schedule intervals were 1 and 5 min long, and the sequence was such that intervals of either duration were equally likely to be followed by intervals of the same or of the other duration. Rates were higher during 1-min and after 5-min intervals. Best fit equations for cumulative responses during the 5-min intervals produced very similar exponents regardless of preceding duration. It was concluded that preceding duration may have affected the subjects' performances through direct effects on temporal discrimination.     

The impact of spouse monitoring on target behavior and recorder satisfaction

The objectives of this study were (a) to determine the impact of a spouse monitoring procedure on the target's (husband's) behavior and the recorder (wife's) view of the marriage and (b) to assess the relationship between the target's positive behaviors and the recorder's marital satisfaction rating. In one condition, husbands were informed that their behavior was being observed, whereas in a comparison group, husbands were kept unaware of the observation procedure. In both conditions, wives kept daily recordings of (a) positive behaviors emitted by their husbands and (b) perceptions of their marital relationships. No differences were found in rates of husbands' behavior or in wives' perceptions of their marriages as a function of the awareness manipulation. Analyses examining the relationship between spouse behavior and daily satisfaction ratings indicated a statistically reliable association, although the majority of variance in satisfaction ratings was attributable to unique subject variables.This article is based on a thesis submitted by the first author to the Department of Psychology of the University of Pittsburgh. The described research was supported in part by a Faculty Research Grant from the University of Pittsburgh awarded to the second author.     

Infant state in relation to its environmental context

Two neonatal intensive care units (NICU) were observed every 15 minutes for at least 72 consecutive hours. Although infants on both NICUs were exposed to considerable amounts of stimulation, there were differences between the units for each environmental measure in the amount of stimulation and/or the pattern of circadian periodicity. The two NICUs also differed in the amount of time infants spent in various states and in the pattern of state periodicity. In general, the diurnal rhythms of the infant states were associated with the diurnal rhythms of different environmental events; furthermore, the patterns of association were not the same on the two NICUs. The results point to potential problems in depicting a “typical” NICU. More importantly, they suggest that the environmental of NICUs has a recognizable influence on aspects of their inhabitants' behavior and that the nature of influence is different from NICU to NICU. The effects are potentially significant for physical, social, and cognitive development.     

Reproducibility and a unifying explanation: Lessons from the shape bias

The goal of science is to advance our understanding of particular phenomena. However, in the field of development, the phenomena of interest are complex, multifaceted, and change over time. Here, we use three decades of research on the shape bias to argue that while replication is clearly an important part of the scientific process, integration across the findings of many studies that include variations in procedure is also critical to create a coherent understanding of the thoughts and behaviors of young children. The “shape bias,” or the tendency to generalize a novel label to novel objects of the same shape, is a reliable and robust behavioral finding and has been shown to predict future vocabulary growth and possible language disorders. Despite the robustness of the phenomenon, the way in which the shape bias is defined and tested has varied across studies and laboratories. The current review argues that differences in performance that come from even seemingly minor changes to the participants or task can offer critical insight to underlying mechanisms, and that working to incorporate data from multiple labs is an important way to reveal how task variation and a child’s individual pathway creates behavior—a key issue for understanding developmental phenomena.     

Assimilation and contrast effects: The role of self‐construal and regulatory focus as moderators in collectivistic cultures of honour

Human judgments are context dependent. When answering a question about one's overall satisfaction with life, a previous question about one's romantic life might pose redundancy problems influencing one's judgment of life satisfaction, something known as item order effects. However, in order to detect such redundancy, one needs to pay attention to the context of the conversation. Any variable that influences the amount of attention given the context of the conversation can determine whether the presumed redundancy is detected or not. In three studies, two experiments and one correlational study, we tested the influence of induced self‐construal (study 1) and self‐regulatory focus (study 2) and self‐regulatory focus measured as an individual difference variable (study 3) as moderators of context effects among college students from Mexico. In study 1, participants induced to have an independent mindset were less likely to detect the redundancy posed by two questions, resulting, as predicted, in a contrast effect. In study 3, participants with lower levels of prevention focus were less likely to detect the redundancy posed by the same two questions as study 1, resulting, as predicted, in an assimilation effect. The implications of the results were discussed within the framework of the inclusion/exclusion model.     

积极情绪对人际信任影响的线索效应

运用书写任务与信息反馈方法诱发与信任不相关和相关情绪, 采用信任投资任务和自我报告法研究了积极情绪对人际信任影响的受信者信息与情境线索的依赖性, 即线索效应。结果发现：(1)在不相关情境和对受信者熟悉的条件下, 三种情绪对人际信任的影响差异显著, 积极情绪条件下的投资信任和直接报告的信任显著高于中性与消极情绪条件下; 在不相关情境和在对受信者陌生条件下, 积极情绪条件下的投资信任和直接报告的信任与中性和消极情绪条件下的投资信任和直接报告的信任差异不显著。(2)在相关情境和在对受信者熟悉条件下, 三种情绪对人际信任的影响差异显著, 积极情绪条件下的投资信任显著高于中性与消极情绪条件下; 在相关情境和对受信者陌生条件下, 三种情绪对人际信任的影响差异显著, 积极情绪条件下的投资信任和直接报告的信任显著高于中性与消极情绪条件下, 中性与消极情绪对人际信任的影响差异不显著。积极情绪对人际信任的影响存在受信者信息与情境线索的依赖性。     

青少年的气质与烟酒使用:交互效应检验

考察气质(意志控制、愤怒挫折、感觉寻求)对青少年烟酒使用的主效应,气质与教养方式(权威、专制、纵容)对烟酒使用的交互效应以及气质间的交互效应.采用随机整群抽样的方法,选取660名青少年为被试,匿名完成气质问卷、教养方式问卷和烟酒使用问卷.结果显示:(1)在控制了性别、年龄、社会经济地位后,气质对青少年烟酒使用具有预测作用,低意志控制、高愤怒挫折、高感觉寻求正向预测烟酒使用;(2)教养方式调节部分气质因素与烟酒使用的关系,具体为:权威和专制教养缓冲感觉寻求的风险作用,符合风险缓冲模型;纵容教养增强感觉寻求的风险作用,符合风险增强模型;(3)气质内部在影响青少年烟酒使用时也存在交互作用,愤怒挫折增强感觉寻求的风险作用,符合风险增强模型.因此,烟酒使用是气质与教养方式及气质间交互作用的产物.