Evolution of the wealth gap in child development and mediating pathways: Evidence from a longitudinal study in Bogota,Colombia

Large gaps in cognition and language on the Bayley‐III between the top and bottom household wealth quartiles in 1,330 children aged 6–42 months in a representative sample of low‐ and middle‐income families in Bogota were previously shown. Maternal education and the home environment mediated these wealth effects, whereas height‐for‐age mediated a small amount of the language deficit only. At ages 6–8 years, we relocated 72% of the children and assessed their IQ on the WISC‐V, school achievement, and behavior to investigate the evolution of the wealth gaps and potential mediators. The wealth gap in IQ at 6–8 years was significantly larger than that in a factor combining Bayley‐III language and cognition at 6–42 months; whereas the gap in achievement was larger but not significantly. Moreover, in cross‐sectional analysis, the IQ gap increased from 6 to 8 years reaching over 1 SD. In contrast, the gap in behavior was not significant in either childhood stage. Parental education and early home environment remained major mediators of the wealth gap in IQ and achievement at 6–8 years; later home environment and attending private education also had an effect; and early height‐for‐age was no longer significant. The home environment partly mediated the effect of parental education on wealth. All mediators combined explained most of the variance in the wealth gap; the remaining gaps being not significant. Results highlight the importance of the early home environment and suggest that interventions focusing on that should have long‐term benefits. Also, continued intervention through to 8 years may be desirable. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/_U53iXNww3I .     

“养育脑”网络及其影响因素

“养育脑” (parental brain)是成人响应婴儿刺激(面孔、声音等)时, 大脑中与养育行为密切相关的一系列神经回路的总称, 主要涉及动机-奖赏、共情、情绪调节和执行功能等网络, 眶额皮层、前扣带皮层、前脑岛、杏仁核和辅助运动区等核心脑区。而成人养育经验、催产素和精神障碍特征等因素都会影响“养育脑”网络, 具体表现为育儿经验的增长以及催产素水平的提高促进了成人对婴儿刺激的加工, 而精神障碍则损害了其对婴儿刺激的加工。未来研究可考察追踪“养育脑”在不同时期大脑结构的变化以及多脑间的协调同步。另外, 还需进一步探究父亲异常“养育脑”的神经基础, 重视异常父母的预防和干预以及加强本土化研究。     

Parental illness intrusiveness and youth glycaemic control in type 1 diabetes: intergenerational associations and processes

Objective: This study examined associations between the functioning of youth with type 1 diabetes and their parents, including parenting dimensions as intervening mechanisms. The study adds to the existing literature by focusing on (1) the concept of parental illness intrusiveness; (2) the (understudied) periods of adolescence and emerging adulthood; and (3) maternal and paternal functioning. Design: Questionnaires were completed by 317 patient-mother dyads and 277 patient-father dyads. All patients (aged 14–25) had type 1 diabetes. The hypothesised model was compared to an alternative model using structural equation modelling. Main Outcome Measures: Youth reported on depressive symptoms and treatment adherence; Physicians provided HbA_1c-values. Parents reported on illness intrusiveness, depressive symptoms, and their child’s treatment adherence. Patients and parents reported on psychological control and overprotection. Results: The hypothesised path model had a good fit to the data. Parental illness intrusiveness was positively associated with depressive symptoms and both were positively related to overprotection and psychological control. Psychological control was positively related to patients’ depressive symptoms and negatively to treatment adherence. Poorer treatment adherence was associated with worse HbA_1c-values. Conclusion: These findings underscore the relevance of parental illness intrusiveness and emphasise the importance of mothers’ and fathers’ roles throughout adolescence and emerging adulthood.     

Mothers' representations of caregiving and their adult children's representations of attachment: intergenerational concordance and relations to beliefs about mothering

Mothers (N= 35) and their adult children completed questionnaires and were interviewed in order to examine relationships between mothers' caregiving representations and their adult children's attachment representations, and relationships between attachment/caregiving representations and beliefs about mothering. Mothers' and their children's accounts of and present thinking about their past relationship were highly similar, indicating that the two parts develop concordant states of mind regarding their relationship. In contrast, there was no relationship between mothers' and their adult children's beliefs about mothering, suggesting that such beliefs are not simply passed on from generation to generation within families. Attachment/caregiving classification interacted with generation in influencing a belief that biological facts determine maternal behavior, young adults with preoccupied attachment being particularly prone to reject this idea. Attachment/caregiving classification also had a significant effect on participants' tendency to adhere to an idealized conception of mothering, this tendency being associated with a dismissive attachment/caregiving representation.     

Reintegrative Shaming Theory, moral emotions and bullying

This article investigates the usefulness of Reintegrative Shaming Theory (RST) in explaining the bullying of siblings in families and peers in schools. Questionnaires were completed by 182 children aged 11-12 years in ten primary schools in Nicosia, Cyprus, about sibling and peer bullying. A vignette-based methodology was used to investigate children's expectations of the type of shaming their parents would offer in response to their possible wrong doing. Children were also asked questions about the emotions they would have felt (i.e. shame, remorse, guilt or anger) if they were in the position of the child in the vignette. The level of bonding toward each parent was also examined. In agreement with the theory, a path analysis showed that mother bonding influenced children's expectations of the type of shaming offered by parents. Disintegrative shaming (i.e. shaming offered in a stigmatizing or rejecting way) had a direct effect on the way children managed their shame. Shame management directly influenced sibling and peer bullying. Father bonding had no direct or indirect effects in the model. Against the theory, reintegrative shaming (i.e. shaming offered in the context of approving the wrongdoer while rejecting the wrongdoing) did not have a direct effect on shame management. Beyond the postulates of RST, mother bonding-a plausible indicator of family functioning-had a direct effect on sibling and peer bullying. Mother bonding had a stronger effect for boys than for girls. It is concluded that RST is useful in explaining the link between family factors and bullying, and that RST has cross-cultural applicability.     

父母行为控制、心理控制与青少年早期攻击和社会退缩的关系

考察父母行为和心理控制与青少年早期攻击和社会退缩有无特异性联系、是否存在非线性关系、是否以情绪调节策略(认知重评和表达抑制)作为中介。694名青少年(平均年龄13.67岁)完成了父母控制问卷、情绪调节量表、青少年攻击以及社会退缩量表。结果表明:(1)行为控制和心理控制均与两类结果有关,未表现出"一对一"的特异性联系;(2)行为控制与两类结果呈倒U型曲线关系,心理控制与两类结果呈线性关系;(3)认知重评在心理控制与攻击之间具有部分中介作用,表达抑制在心理控制与社会退缩之间具有部分中介作用。     

青少年父母支持的特点及其对社会适应的影响:情绪智力的中介作用

本研究旨在考察青少年父母支持的特点,并探讨父母支持、情绪智力对社会适应的影响。采用《青少年父母社会支持问卷》、《青少年情绪智力问卷》和《青少年社会适应状况评估问卷》对2623名中学生进行调查。结果发现:(1)青少年所获得的父母支持总体状况良好,且存在显著的性别和年级差异:女生在情感支持和陪伴支持方面显著高于男生,在肯定价值和工具性支持方面不存在显著的性别差异;父母支持的4个维度都表现出随年级增长而下降的趋势,高二年级的父母支持显著低于初一、初二年级。(2)父母支持、情绪智力和社会适应的简单相关分析发现,父母支持与积极社会适应显著正相关,与消极社会适应显著负相关;情绪智力与积极社会适应显著正相关,与消极社会适应显著负相关;父母支持与情绪智力显著正相关。(3)父母支持与青少年社会适应的典型相关分析表明,两者的整体相关显著,父母支持组变量可被典型变量解释的比例为5.85%,社会适应组变量可被典型变量解释的比例为28.5%,冗余指数分别为1.23、5.99。(4)情绪智力在中学生父母支持和社会适应之间起完全中介作用。     

父母冲突与青少年网络成瘾的关系:冲突评价和情绪管理的中介作用

本研究从北京、重庆和石家庄选取三所初中学校1038名初一到初三学生为被试,采用问卷调查的方式以探讨青少年感知的父母冲突对其网络成瘾的影响,以及青少年对父母冲突的认知评价和情绪管理在其中的中介作用。结果表明:(1)总体来看,父母冲突和青少年对父母冲突的认知评价与青少年的网络成瘾呈显著正相关,而青少年的情绪管理与其网络成瘾呈显著负相关;(2)父母冲突不仅直接影响青少年的网络成瘾,而且还通过青少年的冲突评价和情绪管理间接影响青少年的网络成瘾,但直接作用更为明显。(3)相比青少年的冲突评价,青少年的情绪管理起着更为重要的中介作用。     

父母控制、不良同伴和感觉寻求对工读生毒品使用的影响机制

在社会学习理论和生态系统理论基础上提出一个有调节的中介模型,探讨父母心理控制、行为控制与工读生毒品使用的关系,以及结交不良同伴的中介效应和感觉寻求的调节效应。514名工读生完成了父母控制问卷、不良同伴问卷、感觉寻求量表和毒品使用问卷。结果显示:(1)父母心理控制能正向预测工读生的毒品使用,父母行为控制能负向预测工读生的毒品使用。(2)结交不良同伴在心理控制、行为控制与工读生毒品使用的关系中起中介作用。(3)结交不良同伴的中介作用受到感觉寻求的调节。     

Exposure to Parental Cigarette Smoking and Child Problem Behaviors: A Longitudinal Study

This study examined exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), a major public health problem. ETS has been found to be associated with an increased risk of adverse health effects in children. This study utilizes data from a community-based, longitudinal investigation examining the relation between children’s exposure to ETS and later internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors. Interviews were administered to a representative community sample of participants from two New York State counties in 1983, with subsequent interviews in 1985–1986, 1992, 1997, and 2002–2003 (when the participants’ mean age was 32). Data was collected on various personality and behavioral characteristics of the participants, and on internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors demonstrated by their children. Results indicated that children’s exposure to ETS was associated with an increased risk for both internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors. This relationship was maintained despite control on a number of parental psychosocial risk factors (e.g., demographic variables, personality and behavioral attributes) that have been found to be associated with both parental cigarette smoking and behavior problems among children. These data, which indicate an association between exposure to ETS and internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors among children, support public health policies to further restrict children’s exposure to ETS.