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971.
Although previous meta-analytic evidence supports the existence of parochialism in cooperation among adults, the extent to which children and adolescents are more willing to incur a personal cost to benefit ingroups, compared to outgroups, is not yet clear. We provide the first meta-analysis on the existence and magnitude of parochialism in cooperation among pre-adults. Based on 20 experimental economics studies (k = 69, N = 5268, age = 3–19, 12 countries, published 2008–2019), a multilevel meta-analytic model revealed a small overall effect size indicating that children and adolescents were more cooperative towards ingroups (d = 0.22, 95% CI [0.07, 0.38]). A series of single-moderator analyses tested for the following conditions: participant age and sex; game type ([mini-]dictator game, prisoner's dilemma, public goods dilemma, trust game, ultimatum game); outcome interdependence; membership manipulation (between- vs. within-subjects); group type (natural vs. experimental); reward type (monetary vs. non-monetary); and country of the participant. Parochial cooperation did not vary with participants' age. Parochialism was larger in non-interdependent (dictator-type) compared to interdependent (bargaining and social dilemma) games. There were no moderating effects of group type, membership manipulation or reward type. To provide more data on how parochialism develops, primary studies should report age ranges more precisely and use more restricted age groups. 相似文献
972.
Elizabeth Kristi Poerwandari 《The Japanese psychological research》2021,63(4):310-323
Up to the current time, psychology has provided very limited space for qualitative research to contribute to the discipline, even though psychology has a lot to do with subjectivity and intersubjectivity in its work. This article discusses autoethnography, which by some qualitative researchers is still being debated. The author argues that autoethnography contains strong narrative components or analysis with potential contribution to provide new understanding and to build knowledge. The article discusses criticisms against autoethnography, followed by its distinctive characteristics, which at the same time bring significant potential power. Clear guidelines and steps are needed to minimize biases and to bring about the potential power of autoethnography, and this article aims to address the issues through discussions on intersubjectivity, reflexivity, and ethics. At the end, it might be concluded that autoethnography is a method to investigate not merely the researchers, but to reveal certain phenomena and issues. Autoethnography is one good alternative among other methods that can contribute to developing understanding and knowledge through the construction of substantive theories about a particular issue. 相似文献
973.
974.
Michael Davison 《Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior》2021,116(1):114-123
Conventionally, when choice is measured under concurrent schedules, all responses are included. However, the class of all responses consists of 2 sub-classes which are discriminable by their properties: Reinforced responses always equal obtained reinforcers, while unreinforced responses are free to vary. As a result, the inclusion of reinforced responses in choice measures results in sensitivity values in generalized matching that are biased toward larger values, and this bias becomes extreme in some combinations of overall response and reinforcer rates. Different ways of varying concurrent-schedule values also affect estimated sensitivity and the linearity between choice based on all responses and reinforcer ratios. To avoid spurious results and comparisons, and as a matter of good practice, generalized-matching fits and measures should be done using only unreinforced responses. 相似文献
975.
IntroductionBoth objective social isolation (OSI) and subjective feelings of loneliness (perceived social isolation; PSI) are linked to cognitive problems in the general community. However, examination of the relationship between social cognitive capacity and social functioning in adults has mostly been limited to clinical samples. Thus, the aim of the current study is to examine the pathways linking social cognitive capacity, OSI and PSI in young and middle-aged adults.MethodsTwo-hundred fifty-two healthy individuals aged 18–50 completed a battery of social cognitive tasks, as well as self-report questionnaires measuring OSI and PSI.ResultsWorse lower-level processing of social cues predicted higher level of OSI, but not PSI. More pronounced hostile attribution bias predicted higher levels of both OSI and PSI.ConclusionResults of the current study suggest that objective social cognitive capacity may predict objective but not perceived levels of social functioning. At the same time, social cognitive biases may affect both objective and perceived social isolation in healthy individuals. 相似文献
976.
Affective experiences occur across the wake-sleep cycle—from active wakefulness to resting wakefulness (i.e., mind-wandering) to sleep (i.e., dreaming). Yet, we know little about the dynamics of affect across these states. We compared the affective ratings of waking, mind-wandering, and dream episodes. Results showed that mind-wandering was more positively valenced than dreaming, and that both mind-wandering and dreaming were more negatively valenced than active wakefulness. We also compared participants’ self-ratings of affect with external ratings of affect (i.e., analysis of affect in verbal reports). With self-ratings all episodes were predominated by positive affect. However, the affective valence of reports changed from positively valenced waking reports to affectively balanced mind-wandering reports to negatively valenced dream reports. These findings show that (1) the positivity bias characteristic to waking experiences decreases across the wake-sleep continuum, and (2) conclusions regarding affective experiences depend on whether self-ratings or verbal reports describing these experiences are analysed. 相似文献
977.
BackgroundIndividuals with substance use disorder show attentional bias toward drug-related cues, which may be associated with attentional control deficits. Although exercise improves attention in healthy people, whether individuals with substance use disorder also benefit is unknown. We explored the effects of chronic exercise on behavioral and neural correlates of attentional bias in men with methamphetamine use disorder.MethodsSixty-one such men were randomized to high- or moderate-intensity exercise or to a control group with little exercise for 12 weeks. The dot-probe task assessed attentional bias before and after exercise intervention, with event-related potentials recorded during the task to determine underlying neural mechanisms.ResultsAttentional bias scores and event-related potential amplitudes significantly decreased after high- or moderate-intensity chronic exercise, but not in controls.ConclusionsChronic exercise reduces attentional bias in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder by enhancing early identification of drug-related stimuli and diverting attention to reduce conflict processing. 相似文献
978.
We investigate cross‐cultural disparities in focalism bias through two studies of probability estimation. Using 60 American and 60 Chinese participants, Experiment 1 yields the standard finding that Americans manifest greater focalism bias by tending to neglect background probability base‐rates and to rely more heavily on obtained samples in estimating true probabilities, whereas Chinese participants show little tendency to ignore base‐rates. In Experiment 2, the phrasing of the probability‐estimation task is changed to bring base‐rates into the focus of the problem statement, again using a sample of 60 Americans and 60 Chinese. This allows us to test whether cross‐cultural differences result from a tendency to focus on the sample, and ignore ‘context’ (i.e., the background base‐rates), rather than simply a discrepancy in mathematical facility between the two groups. The results show far less base‐rate neglect for Americans, but essentially no change for Chinese (who always use base‐rate information, regardless of how presented). This outcome argues against the explanation that Americans are poorer Bayesians simply because they are weaker mathematicians. Implications are discussed. 相似文献
979.
Simone C. Tüttenberg Holger Wiese 《British journal of psychology (London, England : 1953)》2020,111(3):570-597
People are better at remembering faces of their own relative to another ethnic group. This so-called own-race bias (ORB) has been explained in terms of differential perceptual expertise for own- and other-race faces or, alternatively, as resulting from socio-cognitive factors. To test predictions derived from the latter account, we examined item-method directed forgetting (DF), a paradigm sensitive to an intentional modulation of memory, for faces belonging to different ethnic and social groups. In a series of five experiments, participants during learning received cues following each face to either remember or forget the item, but at test were required to recognize all items irrespective of instruction. In Experiments 1 and 5, Caucasian participants showed DF for own-race faces only while, in Experiment 2, East Asian participants with considerable expertise for Caucasian faces demonstrated DF for own- and other-race faces. Experiments 3 and 4 found clear DF for social in- and outgroup faces. These results suggest that a modulation of face memory by motivational processes is limited to faces with which we have acquired perceptual expertise. Thus, motivation alone is not sufficient to modulate memory for other-race faces and cannot fully explain the ORB. 相似文献
980.
Gustavo Bodanza Esteban Freidin Sebastián Linares Fernando Delbianco 《International journal of psychology》2020,55(1):67-75
We experimentally approach the discursive dilemma to gain insight into people's procedural appropriateness judgments. We relied on a vignette in which three people had formed opinions about two skills (premises) of a candidate to decide whether to hire her/him (conclusion). The dilemma arises when different outcomes (hire vs. not hire) are achieved depending on whether the majority opinion is independently considered for each premise or for the global conclusion of each judge. Participants were asked to choose the procedure they thought to be more appropriate to reach a decision. In Experiment 1, we found a leniency effect (a bias to prefer the aggregation procedure that led to hiring the candidate), which was reduced by introducing the participant as a juror with an exogenously provided negative opinion about the candidate's skills. In Experiment 2, we replicated the opinion effect, even when subjects did not participate as jury members. In Experiment 3, we found that the leniency bias was only reduced when participants' negative opinion was aligned with a majority of negative premises, but not with a majority of negative conclusions. We discuss present findings in terms of the identification of empirical regularities that may affect people's procedural legitimacy judgments. 相似文献