心理学实验的可重复性

严格意义的实验可重复性指的是实验控制条件不变的情况下其结果的可重复性,置信区间是表示这种可重复性的恰当方法,可重复性的提高可通过在实验设计和数据分析中将影响因变量的随机额外变量作为协变量引入来实现;另一种意义的可重复性指的是实验结果的可迁移性,它涉及当控制条件变化时因控制变量和自变量的交互作用而导致的实验结果的变化。在这两种意义下,心理学实验较低的可重复性都源于它的额外变量的庞杂。     

缺失数据的结构方程建模:全息极大似然估计时辅助变量的作用

本研究通过蒙特卡洛模拟考查了采用全息极大似然估计进行缺失数据建模时辅助变量的作用。具体考查了辅助变量与研究变量的共缺机制、共缺率、相关程度、辅助变量数目与样本量等因素对参数估计结果精确性的影响。结果表明,当辅助与研究变量共缺时:(1)对于完全随机缺失的辅助变量,结果更容易出现偏差;(2)对于MAR-MAR组合机制,纳入单个辅助变量是有益的;对于MAR-MCAR或MAR-MNAR组合机制,纳入多于一个辅助变量的效果更好;(3)纳入与研究变量低相关的辅助变量对结果也是有益的。     

Executive function and psychosocial adjustment in healthy children and adolescents: A latent variable modelling investigation

The objective of this study was to establish latent executive function (EF) and psychosocial adjustment factor structure, to examine associations between EF and psychosocial adjustment, and to explore potential development differences in EF-psychosocial adjustment associations in healthy children and adolescents. Using data from the multisite National Institutes of Health (NIH) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Study of Normal Brain Development, the current investigation examined latent associations between theoretically and empirically derived EF factors and emotional and behavioral adjustment measures in a large, nationally representative sample of children and adolescents (7–18 years old; N = 352). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was the primary method of data analysis. CFA results revealed that, in the whole sample, the proposed five-factor model (Working Memory, Shifting, Verbal Fluency, Externalizing, and Internalizing) provided a close fit to the data, χ²(66) = 114.48, p < .001; RMSEA = .046; NNFI = .973; CFI = .980. Significant negative associations were demonstrated between Externalizing and both Working Memory and Verbal Fluency (p < .01) factors. A series of increasingly restrictive tests led to the rejection of the hypothesis of invariance, thereby precluding formal statistical examination of age-related differences in latent EF-psychosocial adjustment associations. Findings indicate that childhood EF skills are best conceptualized as a constellation of interconnected yet distinguishable cognitive self-regulatory skills. Individual differences in certain domains of EF track meaningfully and in expected directions with emotional and behavioral adjustment indices. Externalizing behaviors, in particular, are associated with latent Working Memory and Verbal Fluency factors.     

Hazard function effects on promoting self-control in variable interval time-based interventions in rats

The present experiments investigated properties of time-based interventions used to increase self-control. Rats received impulsive-choice assessments before and after interventions that consisted of different distributions of delays to reinforcement. In Experiment 1, rats received an intervention with an increasing hazard function where delays were more evenly distributed, a decreasing hazard function where delays were mostly short, or a constant hazard function where delays were exponentially distributed. Surprisingly, rats that received the decreasing hazard function made the most self-controlled choices. Response rates during intervention trials showed that rats anticipated reinforcement based on the shape of the distributions they received. In Experiment 2, rats received an intervention with a decreasing hazard function with a steep slope or a shallow slope. Both time-based interventions increased self-control and produced similar response-rate patterns, indicating that the slope of the decreasing hazard function may not play a strong role in intervention efficacy. While this research aligns with previous literature showing that time-based interventions improved self-control, exposure to short delays produced the biggest improvements. Ultimately, exposure to short delays may increase the subjective value of the larger–later choice while occasional long delays may promote the ability to wait, which may have important implications for translational applications.     

Immediate postsession feeding reduces operant responding in rats

Three experiments investigated the effects of immediate and delayed postsession feeding on progressive-ratio and variable-interval schedule performance in rats. During Experiments 1 and 2, immediate postsession feeding decreased the breakpoint, or largest completed ratio, under progressive-ratio schedules. Experiment 3 was conducted to extend the results of the first two experiments to responding maintained by variable-interval schedules with different session lengths (15 and 60 min). Response rates decreased in all 4 subjects when postsession feeding immediately followed a 15-min session and in 3 of 4 subjects when postsession feeding immediately followed a 60-min session. The implications of this research are twofold: (1) The functional context in which within-session reinforcers are embedded extends outside the experimental chamber, and (2) supplemental postsession feedings should be sufficiently delayed from the end of a session to avoid weakening operant behavior in the experimental sessions.     

The construct of psychophysiological reactivity: Statistical and psychometric issues

The purpose of this paper is to review major statistical and psychometric issues impacting the study of psychophysiological reactivity and discuss their implications for applied developmental researchers. We first cover traditional approaches such as the observed difference score (DS) and the observed residual score (RS), including a review of classic and recent research on their reliability and validity from two related bodies of work: the measurement of change and the Law of Initial Values. Second, we review several types of latent variable modeling in this context: latent difference score (LDS) models, latent residual score (LRS) models, latent state-trait (LST) models, and latent growth curve (LGC) models. Finally, we provide broad guidelines for applied researchers broken down by key stages of a psychophysiological project: study planning, data analysis, and reporting of results. Our recommendations highlight the need for (1) increased attention to the ubiquitous nature of measurement error in observed variables and the importance of employing latent variable models when possible, and (2) increased specification of theories relating to the construct of reactivity, especially in regards to the distinction between baseline arousal and change over time in broader systems of variables.     

A Comparison of Imputation Strategies for Ordinal Missing Data on Likert Scale Variables

This article compares a variety of imputation strategies for ordinal missing data on Likert scale variables (number of categories = 2, 3, 5, or 7) in recovering reliability coefficients, mean scale scores, and regression coefficients of predicting one scale score from another. The examined strategies include imputing using normal data models with naïve rounding/without rounding, using latent variable models, and using categorical data models such as discriminant analysis and binary logistic regression (for dichotomous data only), multinomial and proportional odds logistic regression (for polytomous data only). The result suggests that both the normal model approach without rounding and the latent variable model approach perform well for either dichotomous or polytomous data regardless of sample size, missing data proportion, and asymmetry of item distributions. The discriminant analysis approach also performs well for dichotomous data. Naïvely rounding normal imputations or using logistic regression models to impute ordinal data are not recommended as they can potentially lead to substantial bias in all or some of the parameters.     

题目因素分析：基于SEM和基于IRT的两类方法

心理和教育测量一般只能达到顺序量表的水平,其测量数据与被测因子间并非简单线性关系。题目因素分析是用来描述测量题目与因子间非线性关系的统计模型。题目因素分析主要有基于结构方程模型和基于项目反应理论两类方法,两类方法之间存在紧密的联系,甚至可以看作是同一模型的两种表现形式。本文详细阐述了该关系,同时对两类方法在参数估计、模型拟合指标、测量一致性检验和支撑软件等方面的特点进行了分析和比较,以便研究者选择最为适合其研究的方法。     

On the interpretation of the CHC factor Gc

On the one hand, the factors Gf and Gc in the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence are hypothesized to represent individual differences in unique psychological or biological capacities. On the other hand, they are interpreted as representing the theoretical variables fluid and crystallized intelligence in investment theory. With respect to Gc, this leads to a theoretical conflict because in investment theory crystallized intelligence is not a capacity but purely a statistical entity. We contend that if CHC factor Gc represents a capacity, it cannot represent crystallized intelligence, and if Gc represents crystallized intelligence, it does not represent a capacity. In addition, from our discussion of Gc, we conclude that in investment theory the factors Gf and g represent one and the same capacity. In support of our theoretical conclusions, we implemented the CHC model in a confirmatory factor analysis of a HCA (Human Cognitive Abilities project) data set. As expected, Gf and g were statistically indistinguishable. Gc was effectively absent, because it was statistically equivalent to verbal comprehension. Factors Gc and g could be removed from the model without any reduction in model fit. We argue that in the CHC taxonomy the factors Gc and g are redundant as explanatory variables.