Squeezing, striking, and vocalizing: Is number representation fundamentally spatial?

Numbers are fundamental entities in mathematics, but their cognitive bases are unclear. Abundant research points to linear space as a natural grounding for number representation. But, is number representation fundamentally spatial? We disentangle number representation from standard number-to-line reporting methods, and compare numerical estimations in educated participants using line-reporting with three nonspatial reporting conditions (squeezing, bell-striking, and vocalizing). All three cases of nonspatial-reporting consistently reproduced well-established results obtained with number-line methods. Furthermore, unlike line-reporting—and congruent with the psychophysical Weber–Fechner law—nonspatial reporting systematically produced logarithmic mappings for all nonsymbolic stimuli. Strikingly, linear mappings were obtained exclusively in conditions with culturally mediated elements (e.g., words). These results suggest that number representation is not fundamentally spatial, but builds on a deeper magnitude sense that manifests spatially and nonspatially mediated by magnitude, stimulus modality, and reporting condition. Number-to-space mappings—although ubiquitous in the modern world—do not seem to be rooted directly in brain evolution but have been culturally privileged and enhanced.     

Inferring hidden causal structure

We used a new method to assess how people can infer unobserved causal structure from patterns of observed events. Participants were taught to draw causal graphs, and then shown a pattern of associations and interventions on a novel causal system. Given minimal training and no feedback, participants in Experiment 1 used causal graph notation to spontaneously draw structures containing one observed cause, one unobserved common cause, and two unobserved independent causes, depending on the pattern of associations and interventions they saw. We replicated these findings with less-informative training (Experiments 2 and 3) and a new apparatus (Experiment 3) to show that the pattern of data leads to hidden causal inferences across a range of prior constraints on causal knowledge.     

Hand dominance influences the processing of observed bodies

In motor tasks, subgroups of lefthanders have been shown to differ in the distribution of attention about their own bodies. The present experiment examined whether similar attentional biases also apply when processing observed bodies. Sixteen right handers (RHs), 22 consistent left handers (CLHs) and 11 relatively ambidextrous inconsistent left handers (ILHs) performed an own body transformation task in which they were instructed to make speeded left–right judgements about a schematic human figure. Attentional biases associated with handedness were found to extend to observed bodies: CLHs’ judgements were faster to the figure’s left side, while ILHs, like RHs, showed facilitated performance to the figure’s right side. These results demonstrate a novel embodiment effect whereby the processing of a static schematic human figure is modulated by an individual’s personal motor capabilities. This finding suggests that motor simulation may contribute to whole body perception in the absence of actual or implied actions.     

VARIETIES OF RELIGIOUS COGNITION: A COMPUTATIONAL APPROACH TO SELF-UNDERSTANDING IN THREE MONOTHEIST CONTEXTS

This study considered representations of divine and human others in the self-understanding of monotheists from three religions. Self-understanding was conceptualized on the basis of semantic and episodic knowledge in narrative response data. Given the importance of social context in the formation of cognitive schemas, the project emphasized self-understanding in a comparative religious design. The sample included sixty nominated religious exemplars who responded to a structured interview. Schemas were subsequently mapped for Jews, Muslims, and Christians by comparison of self and other representations in a computational model known as latent semantic analysis (LSA). Findings indicated that representation of the divine is far removed from parents in cognitive schemas for all participants. Unlike Jews and Christians, Muslims appear to represent human others on the basis of self-understanding which principally references the divine. When considered in a computational semantic space, exemplars generally represent the self in a manner corresponding with divine and peer figures.     

信息外部表征形式对初中生学习决策框架效应的影响

333名初中生被分配到基于描述表征的两种条件下,分别对获得框架与损失框架下的风险回避类与风险寻求类学习时间选项进行抉择,以探讨信息外部表征对学习决策框架效应的影响.结果表明:1)在基于描述表征的条件下,学习决策领域中存在框架效应,但有其领域特殊性,被试在获得框架中无明显决策偏向,但在损失框架中的决策明显偏向风险寻求.2)在基于经验表征的条件下,学习决策不存在框架效应.无论是在获得框架还是损失框架中的学习决策均不存在明显的偏向.     

恒河猴对多边形边(角)数识别极限的实验研究

两只恒河猴在实验条件下以正多边形和不规则多边形的边数为刺激实体进行数量辨别训练,以最后测得恒河猴对多边形边(角)数识别的极限。实验结果表明,恒河猴在多边形边数相差为1的条件下,其辨别上限为7:8。这与以前以白色卡片上黑色圆点为刺激实体所得到的实验结果是一致的。     

抽样组合中元素数量对青少年组合成绩的影响

先前抽样组合问题研究表明达到形式运算阶段青少年的抽样组合思维成绩表现并不一致,作者分析猜想可能的原因是组合元素数量增加会降低被试的抽样组合成绩。现在实验考察高中一年级学生的抽样组合思维能力,以组合问题中的总体元素数量和样本元素数量为自变量,设置了五选三、七选三和七选四的三种抽样组合问题条件。实验结果发现,随着总体元素数量和样本元素数量的增加,被试的组合成绩明显下降。这表明,青少年的抽样组合思维能力虽已获得,但随组合元素数量增加而表现出倒退,并没达到成熟的一般性;其发展水平可能存在初级水平到高级水平的区分。     

多元表征假设：概念表征机制的新观点

传统的认知主义认为概念表征是与主体的感知系统无关的抽象符号。而具身理论则认为,概念表征以主体的感觉、知觉运动系统为基础的,感知系统在概念表征中具有中心作用。然而,具身性假设无法恰当的解释抽象概念表征这一问题。这种局限性说明主体的概念系统可能具有多元表征机制：既包括感知表征以加工与身体经验相关的具体知识,也包括抽象符号表征以加工与身体经验无关的抽象知识。来自病理学、认知神经科学和行为实验的实证研究证明了不同类型的概念会涉及不同的表征机制,证实了多元表征存在的合理性。今后的研究应探讨各种表征机制之间的关系等问题。     

大脑腹侧视觉通路知觉表征神经机制研究

大脑腹侧视觉通路知觉表征的神经机制是认知神经科学研究面临的基本问题。本文系统介绍了该问题研究中比较有影响力的理论模型,归纳分析了模型之间的分歧与各自的局限。文章分析指出大脑自上而下的调控机制是腹侧视觉通路神经表征机制问题研究的另一重要维度,如何有效整合知觉表征模型与大脑调控机制的相关研究是进一步深化知觉表征神经机制问题研究的关键。     

特征呈现方式对类别知觉表征的影响*

两个实验采用阻碍效应范式探讨了特征的呈现方式对类别知觉表征的影响。研究结果发现在阻碍效应范式中,改变特征的呈现方式引发了不同的类别知觉表征方式;当固定样例特征的呈现位置时,引发了基于样例整体相似性的表征;而随机样例特征的呈现位置时,引发了基于样例特征的解析表征。该结果支持了类别学习的多系统理论。