一岁半到二岁半婴儿交涉行为与交换性行为的形成──中日婴幼儿“所有”行为的结构及其发展研究之一

本研究分别在中国和日本对一岁半到二岁半的婴儿进行自然观察,分析了婴儿之间围绕着某些资源而发生的交涉行为和交换性行为的发生过程及其发展上特点。主要结果有①中日婴儿到2岁左右时开始出现交涉行为和交换性行为,但在该年龄阶段并不占有主导地位。②该年龄阶段婴儿的交换性行为还不能说是完整意义上的交换,属于“前交换行为”。③对于获得对方的东西来说,该年龄阶段婴儿的交涉行为和交换性行为并不是很有效的方式。④我们进行观察的中国幼儿园托儿班的婴儿其交涉行为和交换性行为的出现早于日本保育园的婴儿,但从交涉行为出现的比例来看,日本婴儿采用交涉行为的倾向比中国婴儿更明显。     

Disposition-based categories: Structure and salience effects on memory

Two experiments investigated whether disposition-based categories influence the retrieval of behaviors related or unrelated to those categories. In Experiment 1, subjects studied a set of behaviors in order to form an impression of a target person. Impression ratings indicated which category had been activated. In an unexpected recognition test, accuracy was better for category-inconsistent information than for category-consistent behaviors. That result suggested that the structure of disposition-based categories includes qualitatively different representations of consistent and inconsistent acts related to the category. In Experiment 2, subjects rated behaviors with reference to a relevant or irrelevant disposition category. In an unexpected recall test, an advantage for category-inconsistent behaviors was found only when the behaviors had been studied from the perspective of the relevant category. It was concluded that categories are not represented in a form analogous to the representation of category-inconsistent behaviors.     

Reversal theory and personality: A review

Reversal theory is a new “mode-based” theory of motivation and personality which challenges some fundamental assumptions in these two fields and systematically develops an alternative account which emphasizes the complexity, changeability, and even inconsistency of much of behavior and experience. The present paper introduces some of the main concepts of the theory, including those of metamotivation, reversal, telic and paratelic modes, and telic dominance, and shows how the general approach involved can be characterized as “structural phenomenological.” The experimental, psychometric, psychophysiological, and other types of research which have been generated by the theory are reviewed and shown to be generally supportive of it.     

Individual Differences in visual imagery and spatial ability

Spatial ability is generally assumed to involve construction, transformation, and interpretation of mental images. To explore the relationship between spatial ability and both image quality and image process efficiency, 79 subjects performed eight spatial tests, completed three imagery questionnaires, and participated in six laboratory tasks. These laboratory tasks were devised to measure image quality and the efficiency of image generation, image rotation, image scanning, adding and subtracting detail in images, and integration of images. Although ratings of imagery control and vividness were unrelated to spatial test performance, laboratory measures of process efficiency and image quality were strongly related to spatial test performance and weakly related to one another. A structural equation model identified a single spatial factor, Visualization ability, that can be decomposed into unique variance plus a linear combination of measures of image quality and image process efficiency. An interpretation of this model is that successful performance on spatial tests requires maintenance of a high-quality image and efficient image transformation and inspection processes.     

Response latency and response accuracy as measures of memory

The relationship is examined between response accuracy and response latency as measures of memory, and questions are raised concerning the value of the unidimensionality assumption often invoked in theories of memory. Three paired-associate experiments investigated the effects of the length of the retention interval, the kind of processing during incidental learning, and the number of study versus test trials during intentional learning. The findings, together with a review of selected studies in the literature, support three conclusions: (1) Latency of correct recall is not necessarily more sensitive than accuracy, (2) accuracy and latency of correct recall measure different aspects of memory, and (3) latency of correct recall and latency of incorrect recall measure different aspects of memory. The available data disconfirm the idea that any unidimensional construct (such as strength or the amount of information in memory) underlies memory performance. An explanation is offered that emphasizes the distinction between encoding and retrieval processes.     

儿童早期工具行为发展的研究

本研究考察了一岁半到五岁半儿童工具行为发展及其与言语发生和主客体分化的关系。结果表明:使用直接性工具能力的出现几乎与言语发生和主客体分化同步,使用间接性工具的能力则晚出得多,要到三岁至四岁。这意味着:(1)当代人学研究起点应当从“直接工具行为×言语发生×主客体分化”后移。(2)三岁半左右是儿童智力发展超出动物水平的转折期,也是导入间接性工具游戏和训练的最佳年龄。(3)“智力重演说”与“自智人或晚期直立人起人类才有口语”的推测是互相排除的。     

Capacity increase and chunking in the development of short-term memory

The possibility of an age-related increase in the capacity of the short-term store was examined in two short-term memory experiments, and an M-operator model was proposed to account for the data. In the first experiment, lists of 8, 10, and 12 consonants were presented to 10-, 12-, and 14-year-olds. Despite the fact that the amount of chunking was monitored and kept constant across ages, there was a definite developmental increase in short-term memory performance. The size of the increase corresponded to the prediction of Pascual-Leone's M-operator theory. An M-operator model was proposed to account for the relation between performance level and list length at each age, as well as the developmental increase. Predictions of adult performance were tested in a second experiment. Together the two experiments show that an important part of short-term memory development can be explained as a growth in short-term store capacity.     

Effects of salience and time pressure on ratings of social causality

A model is proposed to account for the effects of a target person's salience on judgments of that target. It is argued that salience leads to more extreme inferences in the direction implied by prior knowledge that is relevant to the judgment. This knowledge may include both specific information about the target being rated and general information about the class of stimuli to which the target belongs. Two experiments supported these hypotheses. When subjects were under time pressure to make judgments of a target person's influence in a social situation, their judgments increased with the salience of the target when they had prior knowledge that the target was generally high in social influence. However, their judgments decreased with the target's salience when subjects had prior knowledge that the target was generally low in social influence. When subjects were given ample time to make their judgments, however, the effects of target salience were attenuated. Possible implications of these findings for prior research on salience effects are discussed.