Marr,Mayr, and MR: What functionalism should now be about

In this review essay on The Multiple Realization Book by Polger and Shapiro, I consider the prospects for a biologically grounded notion of multiple realization (MR) which has been given too little consideration in the philosophy of mind and cognitive science. Thinking about MR in the context of biological notions of function and robustness leads to a rethink of what would count as a viable functionalist theory of mind. I also discuss points of tension between Polger and Shapiro’s definition of MR and current explanatory practice in neuroscience.     

The multiple-stimulus-without-replacement preference assessment tool and its predictive validity

This study demonstrates the use of two web-based programs, one to identify video preferences and the other to assess their reinforcing effects. We used the Multiple-Stimulus-Without-Replacement Preference Assessment Tool (MSWO PAT) to identify the video preference hierarchies of seven participants, ages 4–11 years old. We then used a customized reinforcer assessment program that arranged a concurrent-chains preparation with programmed conjugate schedules of reinforcement. Button presses emitted by participants modulated the quality (volume and opacity) of selected videos on a moment-to-moment basis, allowing us to identify the reinforcing effects of the videos in little time. The results showed that the preference assessment had predictive value for five of seven participants. We discuss the MSWO PAT, parameters that may affect the identification of preferences and the use of conjugate schedules to identify reinforcers.     

农民工的工作退缩行为：基于多重嵌入和身份压力的视角

2.9亿农民工的工作退缩行为——为减少工作和组织角色而有意采取的行为(回避工作和降低努力、迟到缺勤、离职等)影响重大。为此, 本研究以资源保存理论作为“伞”理论, 整合了多重嵌入和身份压力的视角, 构建了一个全面预测农民工的工作退缩行为的模型。在该模型中, 提出了同时包含隐性和显性的工作退缩行为的测量指标体系; 构建了农民工在城市和家乡的多重嵌入对不同工作退缩行为的预测关系, 以及“农村人”和“城市人”的双重身份压力经由农民工在城市的多重嵌入对工作退缩行为的间接预测效应。本研究基于农民工样本的特异性, 构建了一个“背景化”的全面预测工作退缩行为的理论模型, 不仅弥补了微观层面农民工研究的理论空白, 也丰富了身份、多重嵌入和工作退缩行为领域的理论和文献。     

Response strength in extreme multiple schedules

Four pigeons were trained in a series of two-component multiple schedules. Reinforcers were scheduled with random-interval schedules. The ratio of arranged reinforcer rates in the two components was varied over 4 log units, a much wider range than previously studied. When performance appeared stable, prefeeding tests were conducted to assess resistance to change. Contrary to the generalized matching law, logarithms of response ratios in the two components were not a linear function of log reinforcer ratios, implying a failure of parameter invariance. Over a 2 log unit range, the function appeared linear and indicated undermatching, but in conditions with more extreme reinforcer ratios, approximate matching was observed. A model suggested by McLean (1991), originally for local contrast, predicts these changes in sensitivity to reinforcer ratios somewhat better than models by Herrnstein (1970) and by Williams and Wixted (1986). Prefeeding tests of resistance to change were conducted at each reinforcer ratio, and relative resistance to change was also a nonlinear function of log reinforcer ratios, again contrary to conclusions from previous work. Instead, the function suggests that resistance to change in a component may be determined partly by the rate of reinforcement and partly by the ratio of reinforcers to responses.     

The influence of question framing on symptom report and perceived health status

Abstract

Self-reports of symptom experience and subjective ratings of health were obtained from 157 undergraduates. The format of the symptom-report question was varied so that half the participants underlined any symptoms (in a list of 30) they had experienced (endorse condition), whereas the remaining participants crossed out any they had not experienced (exclude condition). Within each of these conditions, half were asked to record symptoms over the last month, and half over the last year. Participants in the exclude condition reported, on average, 70% more symptoms than those in the endorse condition. More symptoms were reported over the last year than the last month. Adjusting for the number of symptoms reported and the perceived seriousness of the symptom set as a whole, participants rated their own state of health more negatively in the endorse than exclude condition. This is consistent with research on the “feature-positive” effect, suggesting that active responses have greater influence on self-perceptions. It is argued that self-report measures of health status must be interpreted in relative, rather than absolute terms, and that attention should be paid to the underlying cognitive processes.     

Change and processes of change within interventions to promote adjustment to multiple sclerosis: Learning from patient experiences

This qualitative study was nested within a trial of cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) and supportive listening for patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). It aimed to enrich understanding of the changes made during therapy and to explore processes of change. In-depth interviews with 30 participants from the treatment trial were analysed inductively and five main themes were developed. The benefits that participants described experiencing as a result of the interventions were highly variable, idiosyncratic and often departed from outcomes measured within the trial. Tuning into and sharing one’s thoughts and feelings and learning specific strategies for living with MS appeared to be important processes for change, and participants identified the latter as particularly important for sustaining long-term benefits from therapy. Whether participants fully engaged with the interventions appeared to be related to their perceptions of being the right sort of candidate for the intervention, their expectations and motivations, the therapeutic relationship, adequate tailoring of the intervention, and practical issues. This study builds on previous research on factors and processes involved in adjustment to MS, the benefits of CBT for this population and highlights important issues to consider when developing psychosocial interventions for people with MS.     

Multiple identities and career development of GLB immigrants

There has been increasing interest in the study of career development and career counselling for the gay men, lesbian women and bisexual (GLB) people given the clear link between sexual orientation and career development in the past two decades. Yet, there is still a relatively dearth of literature in this area, especially, much is unknown about the career identity and other related identity development experiences of GLB immigrant adults whose acculturation process intersects with cultural identity, race and ethnicity and sexual identity as they rebuild their careers in the host country. This article aims to explore the connections between multiple cultural identities and their affect on career development. It builds upon the current literature, uses some career development theories, and proposes career development and career counselling interventions for the target group.     

Multiple intelligences and the therapeutic alliance: Incorporating multiple intelligence theory and practice into counselling

Many of the main theoretical traditions in the sociology of the emotions have limitations in their explanations of the institutionalized styles of emotional work, of the menu of emotions available to be felt in particular settings, and of the causal processes by which particular emotions are elicited in those settings. A promising way forward is to apply neo-Durkheimian institutional theory, which also overcomes some of the limitations of Durkheim's own theory of the emotions. Central to this approach is the distinguishing of affect styles and the identification of styles of social organization that elicit these affect styles. The theory puts great weight on ritual, understood in the post-Goffman sense which encompasses quotidian everyday forms as well as grand public ceremonial, as the principal causal process by which forms of social organization produce certain emotions and styles of managing those emotions within ‘affect styles’. The latent social function, in this tradition, of the elicitation of affect is to be understood in terms of the conflictual and rival mobilization of accountability. The theory meets, the article argues, the four key criteria by which sociological theories of affect should be judged.     

How Psychotherapists Address Hypothetical Multiple Relationships Dilemmas with Asian American Clients: A National Survey

This study examined how psychotherapists address hypothetical nonsexual multiple relationships dilemmas with Asian American clients and identified predictors of conservative decisions and the use of culture-based rationales. This survey of 787 Asian American and non-Asian American psychotherapists revealed that clinicians rely on mostly their personal policies and seldom focus on the clients' cultural backgrounds. Psychotherapists who consider their clients' Asian culture have more cultural knowledge and awareness, have been mental health providers longer, and are Asian American and female. Clinicians who avoid multiple relationships tend to cite formal policies as justification and are less likely to consider clients' cultural worldviews, the therapeutic relationship, or their own values. The results are discussed in terms of specific revisions needed in the American Psychological Association Ethics Code, the benefits of more frequent consultation with colleagues and supervisors about ethical dilemmas, and recommendations for psychotherapists.