金钱概念激活与金钱功能偏好对自我损耗后利他的影响

金钱启动能够提高自我损耗后个体的利他,而金钱功能也可能对损耗后个体利他产生不可忽视的影响。实验让处于自我损耗状态的被试数金钱或白纸,然后测量其利他水平及其对金钱功能的内隐偏好。结果证实了金钱启动的积极效应。此外,在数金钱和数白纸两种条件下,金钱象征性功能偏好对自我损耗后个体利他的效应是相反的。这表明,激活金钱概念与偏好金钱象征性功能都有可能补偿自我损耗后的消极影响,但两者的补偿作用是相互独立的。     

Budgets are Moral Documents: Hunger,Money, and Community

Abstract : This article seeks a path for Christian social teaching and advocacy to address concern for how the money we budget nationally truly serves the common good. The status of hunger and food security, global and local, is a good barometer for the wellbeing of the human community. The Bread for the World Institute Report and its updates on the progress of the Millennium Development Goals is an excellent resource for tracking food security and for guiding active Christian concern for connecting money and the common good, a concern grounded in eucharistic fellowship and trinitarian faith.     

通货膨胀、通货紧缩和产品类型对货币幻觉的影响

货币幻觉是指经济交易活动中,人们因倾向于以货币的名义价值而非实际价值思考从而对其消费和投资行为造成影响的一种认知偏差。本研究探讨了在通货膨胀和通货紧缩下以及产品类型对货币幻觉程度的影响。研究发现,在通货膨胀或通货紧缩下,大部分被试判断经济状况时不受货币名义价值的影响,而判断快乐程度和离职意向时受到货币名义价值的影响;在相同的涨价幅度下被试对日常消费品和昂贵消费品涨价幅度的判断差异显著,昂贵消费品引起人们更高程度的货币幻觉。     

Suitability and context for brief therapy

Abstract

The main point of this paper is that a client's suitability for brief or time-limited therapy is determined by various factors, including context. There is still agreement on the validity of Malan's selection criteria, which included ‘mild illness, recent onset, high motivation and response to trial interpretation’, yet many additional issues have since emerged and need to be considered. For instance, the counsellor's suitability, training and work experience, the counsellor's assessment skills and ability to establish a dynamic focus, the clients' capacity for self-reflection, their ego strength and their response to a trial therapy in the first session. Then there is the importance of the various contexts in which nowadays much brief counselling is offered free to clients, whether in education, at the workplace, in primary healthcare settings or by charitable organizations. This means that issues of money and markets have come to the fore and an initial differential assessment needs to be carried out in order to decide which method or model of therapy is best for the client. Matching the counsellor's personality to the needs and to the pathology of the client, and matching the treatment to the client's developmental stage or life stage crises are other aspects of the work, which determine the issue of suitability. In the end as always there is much that remains unknown about what works for whom and how the client's decision to take up help is made.     

Incentive theory: IV. Magnitude of reward

Incentive theory is successfully applied to data from experiments in which the amount of food reward is varied. This is accomplished by assuming that incentive value is a negatively accelerated function of reward duration. The interaction of the magnitude of a reward with its delay is confirmed, and the causes and implications of this interaction are discussed.     

The integration of habits maintained by food and water reinforcement through stimulus compounding.

In Experiment 1, a light and a tone were correlated independently with water reinforcement of bar pressing by rats. With different naive subjects in Experiment 2, one of these stimuli was correlated with food and the other with water reinforcement (counterbalanced). In both experiments the absence of tone and light signaled extinction. Tests of stimulus-reinforcer independence in Experiment 2 indicated that tone and light controlled behavior whose rate was specifically affected by deprivation state. In the stimulus-compounding tests of both experiments, response rates were higher to tone-plus-light than to tone or light presented alone (additive summation). This is the first report of additive summation produced through compounding stimuli paired with different reinforcers. The results are discussed in the context of the effects of incentive motivation on operant performance.     

Incentive processes and the peak shift

Intradimensional operant discrimination schedules were employed, which eliminated the covariation of response and reinforcement rates that are found on most operant baselines. In Phase 1, one keylight (S(1)) controlled an increase in pigeons' treadle pressing, relative to another keylight (S(2)), while being correlated with a decrease in frequency of reinforcement. In Phase 2 both treadle pressing and reinforcement increased in the presence of one keylight, relative to the second. In Phase 1 the relatively flat treadle-press generalization gradients peaked at S(1), whereas the peaks of those in Phase 2 were shifted from S(1) in a direction away from S(2). It was postulated that these positive and negative stimulus-reinforcement contingencies influence the likelihood of obtaining peak shift through the operation of a classically conditioned "central motive state." How response-reinforcement and stimulus-reinforcement contingencies might contribute to the development of inhibitory effects of S(2) is discussed. Autoshaped key pecking also was produced by these procedures. During manipulations of stimuli, the gradients obtained for autoshaped key pecking were narrow and sharply peaked at the food-correlated stimulus (S(2)) in Phase 1. This failure to obtain peak shift for an elicited response suggests a difference in discriminative processes operating in classical and instrumental learning.     

Discriminated response and incentive processes in operant conditioning: a two-factor model of stimulus control

Understanding stimulus control generated in instrumental learning requires the direct investigation of discriminated response and reinforcer (incentive) processes acquired exclusively through the response-reinforcer contingencies operating on complex (multicomponent) baselines. Two series of stimulus-compounding studies accomplished this direct investigation. In one series, the independent variable was the relative reinforcement between schedule components; in the second series, it was relative response rate between components. Stimulus-compounding tests revealed that response and incentive processes enhanced each other when in agreement, counteracted each other when in opposition, and produced intermediate results when only one factor was operating. This pattern of results led to the conclusion that these factors were algebraically combining and to the development of a response/incentive matrix reflecting these dynamics. This two-factor analysis was extended to the peak-shift effect in stimulus generalization experiments and to the generation of inhibitory control. Two decades of stimulus compounding and peak-shift research were organized within this two-factor framework, extending this traditional approach to learning to active research areas heretofore not systematically considered in these terms.     

Employee Stock Options: Are They Indeed Superior to Other Incentive Compensation Schemes?

Although employee stock options are gaining in popularity as a compensation plan aimed at improving work performance, there is neither theoretical nor empirical evidence that they are indeed superior to other incentive schemes, such as profit sharing and gain sharing. This paper examines, from a theoretical perspective, the possible effects of four incentive plans on employee motivation and performance: merit pay, profit sharing, gain sharing, and employee stock options. The analysis relies on two behavioral theories, Expectancy and Equity, and a conceptual financial framework. The different approaches yield incongruent predictions as to which of the four schemes can be expected to most enhance employee motivation. While the managerial theories favor stock options over profit or gain sharing, financial theory makes the case that all plans are identical in a competitive labor market, whereas if stock options are restricted and the labor market exhibits some degree of imperfection, gain and profit sharing plans may prove superior.     

辛苦所得与意外所得的非理性消费偏差：基于IAT检测和ERP证据

不同来源的财富因其在人们心理的权重差异会导致对其消费态度与方式的不同。前人运用一系列行为实验已发现意外所得更容易消费、辛苦所得则不容易消费。基于心理账户和内隐社会认知等理论, 运用IAT和ERP考察财富的意外所得与辛苦所得在人们心理引起的内在消费偏差, 进而对内隐消费态度和脑加工机制进行间接检测。IAT研究结果表明, 意外所得与容易消费的联结更加紧密, 辛苦所得与不易消费的联结更加紧密, 从内隐层面验证了前人的行为研究结论; ERP研究结果发现辛苦所得与意外所得这两个不同收入来源可能建立了不同脑加工机制, 且在P3和LPC成分得到反映, P3成分可能是反映辛苦所得组偏好难消费型消费方式的ERP成分, LPC反映了意外所得收入条件下个体偏好易消费型消费方式的特点。