Collective decision making reduces metacognitive control and increases error rates,particularly for overconfident individuals

This research aimed to investigate the changes in judgment accuracy, confidence, control thresholds, and decision outcomes when people act in two-person groups (dyads) compared with acting individually. First, we used interacting dyads to determine the metacognitive and behavioral outcomes of collective decision making and compared them with those of individuals. Second, we examined whether these changes were related to the trait-confidence and bias of individuals working together. Using a within-person design, undergraduate psychology students (N = 116) completed a General-knowledge Test individually, then together as a dyad. Each question was accompanied by a confidence rating and a decision to bet $10 on the answer. Dyads had significantly higher confidence and lower control thresholds than individuals. They were also significantly more decisive (made more bets) and reckless (lost a higher rate of bets) than when working alone. Thus, we observed a higher rate of decision errors for groups than individuals. The results also demonstrated the important role of individual differences: Overconfident individuals became even more confident, decisive, and reckless when working together compared with less confident or underconfident individuals working together. These findings have important theoretical and applied implications for collective decision making; metacognitive bias and potentially control thresholds may be targeted to alleviate the larger error rates and guide the formation of more effective groups.     

决策信心校准水平对元认知监控作用的影响

决策信心是个体对自身决策正确性的主观评价,是对决策过程的元认知体验。决策信心校准指决策信心水平与实际的决策正确率之间的匹配程度,其指标有信心水平和决策正确率的相关系数及Type II信号检测论中的ROC曲线下面积（Aroc）等。已有研究发现进行决策信心评估能够增强对当前或后续决策的元认知监控作用,但目前尚不清楚这种效应是否依赖于个体的决策信心校准水平。本研究通过设置知觉决策后是否进行决策信心评估（有信心评估与无信心评估）两种条件,考察个体决策信心的校准水平（Aroc）对元认知监控作用的影响。结果显示：1）与无信心评估条件相比,有信心评估的决策反应时显著增长,决策正确率显著提高（p<0.005）;2）Aroc与有、无信心评估条件下决策正确率的增加值显著正相关（r=0.25,p=0.034）,且高Aroc组的决策正确率增加值显著高于低Aroc组（p<0.05）。结果表明,在知觉决策过程中加入决策信心评估具有增强元认知监控作用的效应,体现为决策时间的增长和决策正确率的提高。并且,这种效应的大小依赖于个体的决策信心校准水平,校准水平越高元认知监控作用越好。     

小学高年级学生元认知监测对认知操作输出的影响:执行功能的调节作用

研究采用经典的执行功能测验-威斯康星卡片分类任务,通过自由报告法让被试对每次分类反应进行元认知监测、控制,以探讨小学五、六年级学生元认知控制、执行功能在元认知监测对认知操作输出（奖惩分数、正确应答比例提高指标）影响中的调节作用。研究结果发现：（1）执行功能指标中完成分类数、错误分类数、非持续性错误数、持续性错误数指标在元认知监测与正确应答比例提高之间的调节作用显著;（2）元认知监测在较低的执行功能水平上具有促进作用,即,当执行功能水平较低时,有效的元认知监测可以提高认知操作的输出成绩。研究结果支持元认知监控是与动机有关的、有意识的调节控制,为从理论上厘清元认知监控与执行功能的关系提供了实证支持。     

COPY AND RECALL PERFORMANCE OF 6–8-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN AFTER STANDARD VS. STEP-BY-STEP ADMINISTRATION OF THE REY-OSTERRIETH COMPLEX FIGURE

Turner syndrome (TS) is a genetic disorder in females characterized by the complete or partial absence of one X chromosome. Its most consistent physical features include short stature and ovarian dysgenesis. TS individuals demonstrate a characteristic neurocognitive profile involving weaknesses in visuospatial processing. The hypothesis of defective right hemisphere specialization has been offered to explain the visuospatial deficits in TS. In contrast, an alternative explanation proposes a more uniform dysfunction of the left and right hemispheres, based on findings of symmetrical abnormalities. This article presents an overview of the two hypotheses, along with relevant findings on hemispheric specialization with respect to TS. The impact of the genetic and hormonal mechanisms on the neurocognitive profile of TS is also discussed and directions for further empirical research are identified.     

The effects of advance stop lines and sign prompts on pedestrian safety in a crosswalk on a multilane highway

The effects of specific signs and stop line bars designed to influence motorists to stop further back from the crosswalk when yielding right of way to pedestrians were evaluated using a reversal design. The introduction of the prompt and stop line reduced motor vehicle—pedestrian conflicts (near collisions) by almost 80%. This finding was replicated in a second experiment the following year on two streets using a multiple baseline design. The use of the advance stop line is now being incorporated by the Provincial Department of Transportation for marking crosswalks on multilane streets.     

An experimental analysis of electricity conservation procedures

Daily electricity consumption of four families was recorded for 106 days. A reversal design, consisting of various experimental conditions interspersed between repeated baseline conditions, was used. During experimental conditions, daily prompts (written conservation slogans attached to front doors) and/or daily feedback (daily kilowatts consumed and daily cost information) were in effect. Maximum consumption occurred during the initial baseline; minimum consumption occurred during different experimental conditions for different families. The mean decrease from the maximum to the minimum for all families was 35%. Reversals in consumption were demonstrated in three families, although successive baselines tended to decrease. No clear differences in effectiveness between prompting and feedback conditions were apparent. The procedures used resulted in considerable dollar savings for the families.     

PROMPTS TO INCREASE ATTENDANCE IN A COMMUNITY MENTAL-HEALTH CENTER1

The effect of a brief appointment reminder for mental-health center applicants is reported. A standardized phone message was delivered by an administrative staff member one to three days before the appointment and a sequential experimental design alternating baseline and phone message conditions was used to assess the effects of the procedure. The no-show rate averages were 32%, 11%, 25%, and 14% respectively. The cost of the procedure was $162.00, which was totally recovered when only six appointments were kept. Since over 1000 patients were involved in the study, the return on the investment of $162.00 is considerable. Implications for this procedure are discussed for other community mental-health centers and for other community care-giving agencies.     

Experimental analysis of academic performance in a classroom setting

We evaluated the effects of specific stimulus prompts on accuracy of academic performance with adolescents who displayed academic problems in a public special education classroom. We conducted analyses of instructional strategies within a multielement design with two students who had mild disabilities. Differential effects of the strategies on reading comprehension were not apparent on demand (independent-level) tasks but were apparent on high-demand (instructional-level) tasks. These results suggested that the application of experimental analysis methodologies to instructional variables may facilitate the identification of stimulus prompts associated with accurate academic performance.     

ASSESSMENT OF STIMULI CONTROLLING THE REQUESTS OF STUDENTS WITH SEVERE MENTAL RETARDATION DURING A SNACK ROUTINE

This study assessed stimuli controlling requests during a snack routine after extensive request training with a delayed prompt procedure. During training sessions, one of three three-item snack groups was presented to 3 subjects with severe mental retardation. Assessment sessions involved (a) training conditions (all items were visible), (b) presenting two of three items from a particular group, or (c) presenting no items. One subject requested food items when no food items were present, 2 frequently requested a missing item when the two other items were visible, and all subjects requested visible items. Procedures for assessing stimulus control, such as those described in the current paper, should lead to a better understanding of the variables controlling behaviors that initially appear perplexing and unpredictable.