心理长度对二年级儿童数字线估计表征的影响

从心理长度的角度探讨二年级儿童在0~100和0~1000数字范围存在不同表征方式的原因。实验一要求二年级儿童完成长度均为10cm,范围分别为0~100和0~1000的数字线估计任务。实验二要求儿童对长度分别为10cm和18cm,范围均为0~1000的数字线进行估计。结果发现在两个实验中二年级儿童的估计均存在心理长度,但与以往研究的一年级儿童相比,心理长度的范围有所缩小。随着数字范围的增大或长度的减小,儿童的表征方式出现了从线性表征向对数表征的转变趋势。这些结果表明不精确的表征方式可能与心理长度策略的使用有关,心理长度在一定程度上影响了二年级儿童的估计表征方式。     

Examining differences in minority versus majority preschoolers on social categorization and perceived intergroup distance

We examined the differences between majority and minority children (i.e., group membership) on racial categorization and perceived cultural distance, among 4‐ to 6‐year‐old children, in low diversified schools. We used a spontaneous social categorization task using pictures of children from three different racial groups broadly represented in France (Europeans, Black‐, and North‐Africans), and an evaluation of the perceived cultural distance between participants' in‐group and the racial group represented in the picture, adapted to children and based on three factors (language, eating habits, and music). Results revealed an effect of age on racial categorization: the older the children, the more successful they are in this task. They showed a significant effect of the racial group represented in the photos on perceived cultural distance: members of minority groups (i.e., Black‐ and North‐Africans) were evaluated as more different compared to those of the majority group on each of the factors. Finally, we got an interaction between participants' in‐group and the racial group represented in the pictures, for the language factor: members of the majority group perceived as more different photographs representing minorities peers than those representing majority peers, while participants belonging to minority groups perceived no differences between photographs, according to the racial criteria.     

心理距离对大学生职业决策偏好的影响

职业决策对大学生职业生涯发展具有重要意义。心理距离作为个体决策的重要影响因素之一,是否也影响着大学生的职业决策偏好？研究通过4个实验,采用2（心理距离：远、近）*2（性别：男、女）混合实验设计,以大学生为研究对象,探讨了心理距离（空间距离、时间距离、社会距离、假设性）和性别对职业决策偏好的影响。研究发现：(1)大学生在心理距离远的情境下更偏好选择稳定、职业声望高的职业;在心理距离近的情境下更偏好选择薪资高、专业对口的职业。（2）空间距离、时间距离、社会距离近的情境下,男大学生比女大学生更偏好选择薪资高、专业对口的职业。     

任务框架及利他人格对社会折扣的影响

与自我存在一定社会距离的他人获得收益或遭受损失都会给自我带来一定的效用,这种效用随着与他人间社会距离的增加而减少,该现象被称为社会折扣。本研究采用情境式选择滴定程序,探索并比较了“为他人得益而放弃自我得益”(NG-G)、“为他人不失而放弃自我得益”(NG-NL)、“为他人得益而承担自我损失”(L-G)以及“为他人不失而承担自我损失”(L-NL)4种任务框架下的社会折扣程度。结果发现：(1)4种框架下,指数模型均比双曲模型更好地描绘了被试的社会折扣规律;(2)任务框架影响社会折扣程度,“为他人不失”框架下(含NG-NL、L-NL)的折扣程度比“为他人得益”框架下(含NG-G、L-G)低;(3)任务框架与社会距离的交互作用影响社会折扣程度。随着社会距离增加, NG-G与NG-NL框架下折扣程度的差异逐渐变小, L-G与L-NL框架下折扣程度的差异也逐渐变小;(4)社会距离与利他人格的交互作用显著,高低利他人格者的社会折扣程度只在社会距离较远时存在显著差异。上述结果表明,个体不仅存在自我损失规避倾向,也存在不同程度的他人损失规避倾向。     

Feature overlap slows lexical selection: Evidence from the picture–word interference paradigm

How does the presence of a categorically related word influence picture naming latencies? In order to test competitive and noncompetitive accounts of lexical selection in spoken word production, we employed the picture–word interference (PWI) paradigm to investigate how conceptual feature overlap influences naming latencies when distractors are category coordinates of the target picture. Mahon et al. (2007. Lexical selection is not by competition: A reinterpretation of semantic interference and facilitation effects in the picture-word interference paradigm. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(3), 503–535. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.503) reported that semantically close distractors (e.g., zebra) facilitated target picture naming latencies (e.g., HORSE) compared to far distractors (e.g., whale). We failed to replicate a facilitation effect for within-category close versus far target–distractor pairings using near-identical materials based on feature production norms, instead obtaining reliably larger interference effects (Experiments 1 and 2). The interference effect did not show a monotonic increase across multiple levels of within-category semantic distance, although there was evidence of a linear trend when unrelated distractors were included in analyses (Experiment 2). Our results show that semantic interference in PWI is greater for semantically close than for far category coordinate relations, reflecting the extent of conceptual feature overlap between target and distractor. These findings are consistent with the assumptions of prominent competitive lexical selection models of speech production.     

Dual-Task Training Reduces Impact of Cognitive Task on Postural Sway

Given the flexible organization of locomotion evidenced in the many ways the limbs can be coordinated, the authors explored the potentially correspondingly flexible organization of nonvisual (kinesthetic) distance perception. As kinesthetic distance perception is known to be affected by how the limbs are coordinated, the authors probed the potential perceptual contribution of the arms during locomotion by manipulating arm–leg coordination patterns in blind-walked distance-matching tasks. Whereas manipulation of arm–leg coordination for walking with free-swinging arms had no observable perceptual consequences, comparable manipulation for walking with hiking poles did affect distance matching. These results suggest that under conditions in which the arms act to propel the body (e.g., crawling or stair-climbing) a person's nonvisual sense of movement is conveyed in the coordinated actions of all four limbs.     

The Numerical Stroop Effect in Primary School Children: A Comparison of Low,Normal, and High Achievers

Sixty-six primary school children were selected, of which 21 scored low on a standardized math achievement test, 23 were normal, and 22 high achievers. In a numerical Stroop experiment, children were asked to make numerical and physical size comparisons on digit pairs. The effects of congruity and numerical distance were determined. All children exhibited congruity and distance effects in the numerical comparison. In the physical comparison, children of all performance groups showed Stroop effects when the numerical distance between the digits was large but failed to show them when the distance was small. Numerical distance effects depended on the congruity condition, with a typical effect of distance in the congruent, and a reversed distance effect in the incongruent condition. Our results are hard to reconcile with theories that suggest that deficits in the automaticity of numerical processing can be related to differential math achievement levels. Immaturity in the precision of mappings between numbers and their numerical magnitudes might be better suited to explain the Stroop effects in children. However, as the results for the high achievers demonstrate, in addition to numerical processing capacity per se, domain-general functions might play a crucial role in Stroop performance, too.     

Critical Notices

Abstract

I argue that a practice can only be taken to be one of apparent rule following if it contains a practice of policing moves within the practice. So the existence of an apparently rule‐governed practice entails the existence of, what I call, a policing practice. I then argue that this entailment cannot be reconciled with a non‐factualist construal of the policing practice. Thus non‐factualism about the policing practice is false. Factualism about the policing practice entails realism about rules. So I conclude that we ought to be realists about rules. Finally I distinguish a position which I call ultra‐realism about rules and note that this too is a casualty of the view developed here.     

Theological Distance Education

SUMMARY

Theological institutions accredited by the Association of Theological Schools with distance education courses or programs continue to increase. Theological librarians, although often overlooked, play a significant role in their use of technology to meet the needs of distance students with the support of national library guidelines and accreditation standards. The current state of support to seminary distance programs includes traditional interlibrary loans, consortium relationships, proprietary full text journals, and free Internet resources. Distance learning for graduate theological education is here to stay. The continuing efforts of pioneering distance seminary librarians will guarantee quality, passionate service to students of tomorrow.     

The moderating effect of power distance on employee responses to psychological contract breach

Understanding how employees’ cultural values are related to their responses to promises broken by their organizations (i.e., psychological contract breach) is important given today’s global workplace. Although past research has found that psychological contract breach is positively associated with employee exit, voice and neglect and negatively associated with loyalty, we know little about the role that cultural values play in this process. We explore the role that power distance orientation—an employee’s acceptance of power differentials in society—plays in employee responses to breach. We argue that employees with high power distance orientations will be more likely to respond passively to breach (loyalty and neglect), whereas employees with low power distance orientations will be more likely to exhibit active responses to psychological contract breach (exit and voice). We tested our notions using a sample of 265 employees from different cultures across two points in time. Employees with high power distance orientations were less likely to respond to psychological contract breach with exit and voice than employees with low power distance orientations. However, power distance orientation did not significantly moderate the relationships between psychological contract breach and neglect or loyalty, respectively. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our findings.