Theoretical Models of Affectionate Versus Affectionless Control in Anxious Families: A Critical Examination Based on Observations of Parent–Child Interactions

Psychosocial theories focused on the intrafamilial transmission of anxiety often concentrate on specific parenting behaviors that increase risk of anxiety disorders in children. Two such theories—affectionate versus affectionless control—both implicate parenting, although differently, in the pathogenesis of childhood anxiety. The present article reviews observational studies that focus on interactions between parents and children in anxious families in order to examine critically each of these two models. We divide these observational studies into two groups: those that seek to characterize the behavior of anxious parents (top-down studies) versus parents of anxious children (bottom-up studies). This approach reveals that there is a consistent relationship between controlling parental behavior in families with anxiety-disordered children as well as a consistent relationship between parental behavior low in warmth and families with anxiety-disordered parents. The present article discusses the implications of the pattern that unfolds from the observational studies of the last decade and provides suggestions for future research in the area.     

Effects of temperature and prior residence on territorial aggression in the convict cichlid Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum

Aggression in the convict cichlid Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum was measured under two different environmental parameters after introduction of a conspecific intruder. Measurements were made after 24-hr and 48-hr teritorial residence times at both 26°C and 30°C. Eight fish established territories in individual tanks each containing one terra cotta pot. Intruders contained in a glass cylinder were introduced into the territories. An opaque divider separating the resident from the intruder was removed after a 15-min acclimation period. At 26°C, we observed a significant difference in the mean number of bites of the cichlids of 24-hr and 48-hr residency durations, whereas, at 30°C, such a difference did not exist. Statistical analysis showed that cichlids exhibited more aggression at 30°C than at 26°C. Increased aggression levels at the higher temperature may be related to the fact that cichlids establish territories and spawn at about 30°C.     

Cognition, behavior, and the experimental analysis of behavior

A case history illustrates how one research program in the experimental analysis of behavior evolved somewhat differently from the modal research program represented in this journal. A chief issue that seems to be responsible for this difference is the role attributed to theory in behavioral research: Skinner's views on the nature and function of theory and on the nature of observation combine to produce a certain kind of picture of behavior. The classic conception of reinforcement contingencies is tied to this particular picture. But this picture may be incompatible with, and certainly is different from, other possible pictures. Reinforcement contingencies that place greater emphasis on the local temporal patterning of behavior seem tied to some of these alternative pictures of what behavior is. These other pictures encourage a wide range of theoretical approaches, including cognitive ones, various kinds of mathematical analyses, and computer-simulation methods to characterize entire behavior streams. In the future, perhaps the experimental analysis of behavior will accept a somewhat different range of views on the nature and function of theory, a correspondingly different set of experimental methods, and alternative ways of talking about behavior.     

特殊儿童个案研究资料收集的方法

本文介绍了特殊儿童个案研究中资料收集的三种重要方法：观察法、访谈法和档案资料法。本文较详细地介绍了各种方法的定义、性质,包含的不同类型,不同角色的研究者与被试之间的关系,以及怎样合理利用不同方法获得的资料等。这三种方法各有自己的优点和缺点,为保证研究资料的多样性和有效性,在个案研究中常常是联合运用的。     

Reactivity of Tic Observation Procedures to Situation and Setting

Tic frequency was assessed and compared across home and clinic as well as three experimentally-manipulated situations in order to assess the phenomenon of tic reactivity. Forty-three youngsters with chronic tic disorder recruited from two geographically-distinct sites were videotaped over three weekly laboratory visits under each of the following conditions: (1) alone/camera present, (2) other present/camera present, and (3) alone/camera hidden. Contrary to expectation, more tics were observed during overt as compared to covert observation, while the presence of another person had no overall impact on tic expression. Mean tic counts obtained from clinic observation did not significantly differ from those obtained at home collected either one day before or after. Tic frequency counts were remarkably stable over the three weekly assessments both at home and clinic. Study findings are consistent with past observations that tic expression can be influenced by environmental factors and suggest the stability of tic frequency may exhibit greater temporal and setting stability than previously thought. The clinical and research implications of these results are discussed.     

Relationship Quality of Aggressive Children and Their Siblings: A Multiinformant, Multimeasure Investigation

Sibling influence on the learning and enactment of aggressive behavior has been consistently demonstrated in studies of sibling relationships. Available evidence suggests that, compared with nonaggressive children's sibling interactions, the sibling interactions of aggressive children are marked by more frequent, intense, and prolonged aggressive behaviors. Although research on normative and aggressive children's sibling interactions has increased recently, a number of limitations in this literature were addressed in this study by: (1) including both an aggressive and nonaggressive comparison group, (2) examining both positive and negative features of sibling relationships, (3) employing a multimethod/multiinformant approach to data collection, and (4) utilizing an improved self-report method. In support of our hypotheses and consistent with previous research, results showed that aggressive children's sibling relationships were marked by higher levels of observed conflict and lower levels of self-reported positive features. When gender was examined, results showed that older brother/younger sister dyads were characterized by higher levels of negative features and lower levels of positive features.     

Lost in a sea of subjectivity: the subject position of the researcher in the anthropology of Islam

This paper examines some of the illustrative features of doing participant observation research with Muslims both in the field and back “home.” It is based on my experiences of conducting research in East Java, Indonesia in the classicalist Islamic boarding schools. My religious subjectivity was important to my research in a number of ways including: (1) the ways in which the community tried to define my subjectivity; (2) the nature of my personal religious subjectivity; and (3) academic interpretations of my role and my subject position vis-à-vis Islam and the profession of anthropology.

Agonistic behavior and social reactivity of LG/J mice in both an arena and a seminatural setting

In order to determine the relatively long-term effects of having been primed for agonistic behaviors in an arena setting, 28 male LG/J mice were observed for these behaviors in a seminatural environment for a period of 5 days following a 20 min arena test. The mice were first placed in an arena in which they were allowed either immediate physical contact with another strain (control condition) or were briefly separated from another strain by a transparent partition before being allowed physical access to them (priming condition). Subjects, recorded as either having fought or not fought in the arena, were then placed in a 101 cm square seminatural setting. Seven trials, using 8 LGs each (4 arenaexperienced males and 4 naive females), were made, and agonistic behaviors were recorded for the priming and control condition subjects. The results showed that the control condition fighters (CF) like the priming condition fighters (PF) fought in the arena situation, but different agonistic patterns in the seminatural setting were noted. While in the seminatural environment, both CF and PF mice were attacked frequently and submitted frequently, but PF mice attacked opponents more frequently than did CF subjects (p < 0.025) and elicited significantly more submissions from opponent mice than did CF mice (p < 0.025). It is concluded that: (1) there are more and different agonistic behavior patterns available in the more natural environment than in the arena setting, and more specifically (2) there is a greater effect on agonistic behaviors in a seminatural environment for mice that fought when exposed to the arena priming procedure as compared with mice having fought in the arena control condition.     

A Review of Articles Using Observation Methods to Study Creativity in Education (1980–2018)

This paper reports on an integrative literature review of published articles that used either quantitative or qualitative observation methods to research creativity in learning contexts. Observation is an empirical research method used in quantitative and qualitative naturalistic studies focused on understanding behavior and interactions as they unfold in real-time, which makes it particularly salient for examining the processes associated with the generation and adoption of creative ideas. However, observation remains underutilized in the field of creativity studies, partly because data collection can be time and resource intensive, but also because there are a lack of protocols and recommended research practices for observing creative thinking and problem solving in an educational environment that covers all phases of design, collection, analysis, and reporting. Thirty-seven articles from 1980–2018 were reviewed along seven dimensions: definition of creativity, unit of observation, observer role, observation sampling method, research design, data collection, and data analysis. The paper concludes with five recommendations for using observation to advance the state of research on creativity and education.