Towards a new approach to detect sleepiness: Validation of the objective sleepiness scale under simulated driving conditions

The Objective Sleepiness Scale (OSS) was developed to detect and quantify sleepiness on the basis of two direct and reliable sleepiness indicators: EEG and EOG. The present study aims to test whether the OSS can be used to detect sleepiness episodes that impair performance on driving and vigilance tasks accurately and with a good time synchronization. Forty-three healthy volunteers performed monotonous driving sessions on a simulator and the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) in a normal sleep condition and after partial sleep deprivation. OSS reliability and time synchronization for sleepiness detection were tested on driving (standard deviation of vehicle lateral position and off-road duration) and PVT (reaction time and lapses). Inter-rater reliability of the scale was evaluated by two blinded scorers. Results show that the OSS score indicates higher sleepiness in sleep deprivation conditions (p < 0.001) and with time-on-task. Differences of performance between OSS score calculated with multiple pairwise comparisons, indicate OSS score increase when driving performance (SDLP and off-road duration) decreases (p < 0.001 for comparisons between OSS stages 0 vs 2, 0 vs 3, 1 vs 2 and p < 0.05 for 1 vs 3). Reaction time during PVT is also related to the OSS score (p < 0.05 for OSS values from 0 to 2, 0 to 3, 1 to 2 and 1 to 3). There is no proportional relation between OSS score and performance impairment, but a threshold effect between levels 1 and 2 of the scale is observed. Positive outcomes are also obtained for time synchronization of the OSS assessed on driving performance (p < 0.001 for both SDLP and off-road duration). Finally, inter-rater agreement is found to be considerable. The results allow us to consider using the Objective Sleepiness Scale as a tool for research on sleepiness.     

The importance of reflection and evaluation processes in daily training sessions for progression toward elite level swimming performance

Self-regulated learning (SRL) involves self-directed metacognitive subprocesses and motivational beliefs that facilitate more effective and efficient learning. We investigated whether youth swimmers who are on track to becoming elite swimmers apply SRL subprocesses more frequently in their daily training sessions compared with swimmers who are not on this track. Insights into swimmers’ use of training-centered SRL could advance understanding about underlying individual characteristics that contribute to optimal engagement in daily training and, consequently, progression toward elite level swimming performance. We collected data on training-centered SRL subprocesses (evaluation, planning, reflection, speaking up, effort and self-efficacy) and performance data for 157 youth swimmers aged 12–21 years (73 males and 84 females). The results of a multivariate analysis of covariance revealed significantly higher scores for reflection processes during training for high-performing swimmers but lower scores for effort compared with lower-performing swimmers (p < 0.05). A closer examination of the high-performing group showed that those demonstrating greater improvement during a season scored significantly higher for evaluation processes after training compared with those evidencing less improvement during a season (p < 0.05). Significant between-group differences in SRL subprocesses remained after adjusting for differences in weekly training hours. Youth swimmers on track to becoming elite swimmers are characterized by more frequent use of reflection processes during training and evaluation processes after training, which suggests that these swimmers’ learning and training processes are more effective and efficient. Ultimately, this could contribute to a higher quality of daily training, which may result in greater improvements during a season, higher performance levels, and a greater chance of reaching the level of elite swimming performance.     

统计学习与双语认知的关系

统计学习是提取环境输入潜在规则的一种认知机制,其与语言的关联已得到证实。双语认知是学界关注的热点之一。统计学习与双语认知的关系如何?文章先介绍统计学习认知机制及其与语言的关系,然后从“统计学习能力可否预测二语学习表现”、“统计学习训练能否促进二语学习”和“双语经验能否提高统计学习能力”三个维度述评相关文献,并指出未来可从输入特征、个体差异和神经科学角度进一步探讨统计学习与双语认知的关系。     

Other road users’ adaptations to increase safety in response to older drivers’ behaviour

Changes in physical and cognitive abilities not only challenge the driving ability of older adults, in some situations age-related changes in driving behaviour require other road users to adapt their behaviour to maintain a safe traffic situation. In this study, we aimed to map age-related differences in driving behaviour and assess the impact on other road users. A group younger and a group older adults drove four different routes containing challenging situations (e.g., merging into motorway traffic) in a driving simulator while measures of driving behaviour were collected. Other road users’ deceleration responses to the driver’s behaviour were also collected as a measure of behavioural adaptation. Our results showed similar driving performance between young and older drivers when task complexity was low, but reduced performance in older drivers when tasks requirements increased. Lower driving speed and longer waiting times that were observed in older drivers can be interpreted as compensatory behaviour aimed at creating more time to lower task requirements. Crucially, in a non-time critical situation this compensatory behaviour was found to be successful, however in a time-critical situation (merging onto a motorway) this strategy had negative side effects because other road users had to decelerate in order to keep a safe distance. Our results show the importance of anticipation and adaptation by other road users for the success of older driver’s strategies and traffic safety.     

Evaluating the influence of approaching vehicles on pedestrian’s visual patterns and crossing behaviors at an uncontrolled crosswalk

The visual behaviors and movement characteristics of pedestrians are related to their surrounding potential safety hazards, such as approaching vehicles. This study primarily aimed to investigate the visual patterns and walking behaviors of pedestrians interacting with approaching vehicles. Field experiments were conducted at two uncontrolled crosswalks located at the Cuihua and Yanta roads in Xi’an, China. The visual performance of pedestrians was assessed using the eye tracking system from SensoMotoric Instruments (SMI). Moreover, motion trajectories of the pedestrians and approaching vehicles were obtained using an unmanned aerial vehicle. Subsequently, the visual attributes and movement trajectories of pedestrians and motion trajectories of approaching vehicles were statistically analyzed. The results showed that approaching vehicles distracted the fixation of crossing pedestrians significantly, and occupied 29.5% of the total duration of fixation; that is, pedestrians always directed more fixation points to the approaching vehicles compared to other stimuli. As a vehicle approached, pedestrians’ fixation shifted from other areas of interest to the vehicle. Moreover, an increase in the velocity of the vehicle and a closer distance between pedestrian and the vehicle resulted in an increase in the pedestrians’ duration of fixation on the approaching vehicle, and they implemented more saccades. Furthermore, approaching vehicle’s velocity and distance between pedestrian and approaching vehicle are not significantly associated with pedestrian’s movement attributes. These findings provide insights into the crossing behavior of pedestrians during pedestrian-vehicle interactions, which could assist future researchers and policy makers.     

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex mediates working memory processes in motor skill learning

Neuroimaging studies have shown that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is recruited during motor skill learning, which suggests the involvement of the DLPFC in working memory (WM) processes, such as selection and integration of motor representations temporarily stored in WM. However, direct evidence linking activation of the DLPFC to WM storage and manipulation during motor skill learning in real-time is rare. In this study, we conducted two experiments to investigate the causal role of DLPFC activity in WM storage and manipulation during motor skill learning under low and high WM-demand conditions. Participants received continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) and sham stimulation (crossover design) over the left DLPFC (experiment 1) or right DLPFC (experiment 2). Before and after stimulation, participants in both experiments performed a sequential finger-tapping (SFT) task containing repeated sequence (low-WM demand) and non-repeated sequence (high-WM demand) conditions which are used to study WM processes. The number of correct sequences (NoCS) and reproduction error rate were analyzed. Learning gains in NoCS improved significantly with the practice for both sequence types in the presence of either stimulation type. Compared to sham stimulation, cTBS over the left DLPFC resulted in significantly reduced learning gains in NoCS for non-repeated sequences. These results suggest that the left DLPFC contributes to WM manipulation during motor skill learning.     

来自屏幕的纽带：视频聊天与儿童发展

随着近几年视频聊天的兴起, 越来越多的研究者开始探索视频聊天对儿童发展的影响。相较于传统通讯技术, 视频聊天具备了视听结合与即时互动的特征; 但同时, 作为数字媒体, 视频聊天仍然保持了传统屏幕媒体二维性的特征。汇总以往视频聊天与儿童学习的实证研究发现, 与录制视频教学比较, 视频聊天在婴幼儿词汇学习(d = 0.33)和动作学习(d = 0.90)上的教学效果更佳; 同时, 视频聊天也能够使婴幼儿在教学过程中保持较高的注意水平(d = 0.90)。视频聊天对儿童远距离亲子关系和同伴关系上均有一定的促进作用。视频聊天也可以作为一种辅助治疗手段应用于特殊儿童的干预中。未来研究仍需关注扩大视频聊天学习中儿童被试的年龄范围、共同观看者的不同支持行为对儿童视频聊天学习的效果产生的影响。     

阅读方式和学习次数对中文词汇的产生效应影响的发展研究

产生效应指朗读单词的记忆成绩要好于默读单词的记忆成绩。采用“学习-再认”的实验范式,以小学三年级、小学五年级、初一、初二和大学生为被试,采用2（阅读方式：朗读,默读）×2（学习次数：1次,3次）×5（年级：三年级,五年级,初一,初二,大学）的混合设计,探讨中文词汇产生效应的发展特点。结果发现：（1）年级的主效应显著,大学生的记忆成绩显著高于三年级、五年级和初一学生的;五年级、初一和初二学生的记忆成绩显著高于三年级学生的;（2）阅读方式的主效应显著,朗读的记忆成绩显著高于默读的;（3）学习次数的主效应显著,3次的记忆成绩显著高于1次的;（4）阅读方式和年级的交互作用显著,在朗读的记忆成绩上,小学三年级的与大学生的差异显著,但小学五年级、初一、初二学生的和大学生的差异均不显著,说明朗读的记忆成绩在小学五年级趋于成熟;在默读的记忆成绩上,小学三年级、五年级、初一学生的均与大学生的差异显著,初二学生的与大学生的无显著差异,表明默读的记忆成绩在初二年级趋于成熟。初一学生的产生效应大小与大学生的无差异。研究结果支持产生效应的特异观。     

Distributional learning has immediate and long-lasting effects

Evidence of distributional learning, a statistical learning mechanism centered on relative frequency of exposure to different tokens, has mainly come from short-term learning and therefore does not ostensibly address the development of important learning processes. The present longitudinal study examines both short- and long-term effects of distributional learning of phonetic categories on non-native sound discrimination over a 12-month period. Two groups of listeners were exposed to a two-minute distribution of auditory stimuli in which the most frequently presented tokens either approximated or exaggerated the natural production of the speech sounds, whereas a control group listened to a piece of classical music for the same length of time. Discrimination by listeners in the two distribution groups improved immediately after the short exposure, replicating previous results. Crucially, this improvement was maintained after six and 12 months, demonstrating that distributional learning has long-lasting effects.     

Conscious awareness of action potentiates sensorimotor learning

Many everyday skills are unconsciously learned through repetitions of the same behaviour by binding independent motor acts into unified sets of actions. However, our ability to be consciously aware of producing newly and highly trained motor skills raises the question of the role played by conscious awareness of action upon skill acquisition. In this study we strengthened conscious awareness of self-produced sequential finger movements by way of asking participants to judge their performance in terms of maximal fluency after each trial. Control conditions in which participants did not make any judgment or performance-unrelated judgments were also included. Findings indicate that conscious awareness of action, enhanced via subjective appraisal of motor efficiency, potentiates sensorimotor learning and skilful motor production in optimising the processing and sequencing of action units, as compared to the control groups. The current work lends support to the claim that the learning and skilful expression of sensorimotor behaviours might be grounded upon our ability to be consciously aware of our own motor capability and efficiency.