反馈对注意缺损多动障碍儿童错误监控能力的影响

研究选取了注意缺损多动障碍(ADHD)儿童39名,正常儿童40名,采用两项选择任务,考察在无反馈和有反馈的情况下,ADHD儿童的错误监控能力是否存在缺损。结果发现,(1)无论是否提供反馈,与正常儿童相比,ADHD儿童的错误察觉能力正常,但是错误更正能力落后,这可能是由于ADHD儿童动作调节控制能力落后导致的;(2)反馈提高了ADHD儿童和正常儿童的认知加工速度,但同时降低了他们的警醒水平,导致错误监控能力下降。     

Conscious and unconscious discriminations between true and false memories

When subjects give higher confidence or memory ratings to a test word in a recognition test, do they simply raise their criterion without making better discrimination, or do they raise both criterion and true discrimination between the studied words (SW) and the lures? Given that previous studies found subjects’ false alarm responses to lures slower than to SW, and recognition latency inversely correlated with the confidence rating, can the latency difference between the lures and SW be accounted for by confidence or memory ratings? The present results showed that when subjects gave higher confidence or memory ratings, both their bias and sensitivity were raised, indicating that they could consciously distinguish the lures from the SW. However, a latency difference between true and false recognitions persisted after confidence and memory ratings were held constant, suggesting an unconscious source of discrimination between the two types of memory.     

Modes of knowledge acquisition and retrieval in artificial grammar learning

The aim of this study was to conceptualize artificial grammar learning (AGL) in terms of two orthogonal dimensions—the mode of knowledge acquisition and the mode of knowledge retrieval—as was done by Perlman and Tzelgov (2006) for sequence learning. Experiment 1 was carried out to validate our experimental task; Experiments 2–4 tested, respectively, performance in the intentional, incidental, and automatic retrieval modes, for each of the three modes of acquisition. Furthermore, signal detection theory (SDT) was used as an analytic tool, consistent with our assumption that the processing of legality-relevant information involves decisions along a continuous dimension of fluency. The results presented support the analysis of AGL in terms of the proposed dimensions. They also indicate that knowledge acquired during training may include many aspects of the presented stimuli (whole strings, relations among elements, etc.). The contribution of the various components to performance depends on both the specific instruction in the acquisition phase and the requirements of the retrieval task.     

Belief attribution despite verbal interference

False-belief (FB) tasks have been widely used to study the ability of individuals to represent the content of their conspecifics' mental states (theory of mind). However, the cognitive processes involved are still poorly understood, and it remains particularly debated whether language and inner speech are necessary for the attribution of beliefs to other agents. We present a completely nonverbal paradigm consisting of silent animated cartoons in five closely related conditions, systematically teasing apart different aspects of scene analysis and allowing the assessment of the attribution of beliefs, goals, and physical causation. In order to test the role of language in belief attribution, we used verbal shadowing as a dual task to inhibit inner speech. Data on 58 healthy adults indicate that verbal interference decreases overall performance, but has no specific effect on belief attribution. Participants remained able to attribute beliefs despite heavy concurrent demands on their verbal abilities. Our results are most consistent with the hypothesis that belief attribution is independent from inner speech.     

Unmasking a shady mirror effect: Recognition of normal versus obscured faces

Hockley, Hemsworth, and Consoli (1999) Hockley, W. E., Hemsworth, D. E. and Consoli, A. 1999. Shades of the mirror effect: Recognition of faces with and without sunglasses. Memory & Cognition, 27: 128–138. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] found that following the study of normal faces, a recognition test of normal faces versus faces wearing sunglasses produced a mirror effect: The sunglasses manipulation decreased hit rates and increased false-alarm rates. The stimuli used by Hockley et al. (1999) Hockley, W. E., Hemsworth, D. E. and Consoli, A. 1999. Shades of the mirror effect: Recognition of faces with and without sunglasses. Memory & Cognition, 27: 128–138. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] consisted of separate poses of models wearing or not wearing sunglasses. In the current experiments, we separately manipulated same versus different depictions of individual faces and whether or not the faces were partially obscured. The results of a simulation and four experiments suggest that the test-based, mirror effect observed by Hockley et al. (1999) Hockley, W. E., Hemsworth, D. E. and Consoli, A. 1999. Shades of the mirror effect: Recognition of faces with and without sunglasses. Memory & Cognition, 27: 128–138. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] is actually two separable effects.     

Expertise and gambling: Using Type 2 signal detection theory to investigate differences between regular gamblers and nongamblers

This paper presents an experimental investigation into how individuals make decisions under uncertainty when faced with different payout structures in the context of gambling. Type 2 signal detection theory was utilized to compare sensitivity to bias manipulations between regular nonproblem gamblers and nongamblers in a novel probability-based gambling task. The results indicated that both regular gamblers and nongamblers responded to the changes of rewards for correct responses (Experiment 1) and penalties for errors (Experiment 2) in setting their gambling criteria, but that regular gamblers were more sensitive to these manipulations of bias. Regular gamblers also set gambling criteria that were more optimal. The results are discussed in terms of an expertise-transference hypothesis.     

Reinforcer control and human signal-detection performance

Eight humans participated in a two-choice signal-detection task in which stimulus disparity was varied over four levels. Two procedures arranged asymmetrical numbers of reinforcers received for correct left- and right-key responses (the reinforcer ratio). The controlled procedure ensured that the obtained reinforcer ratio remained constant over changes in stimulus disparity, irrespective of subjects' performances. In the uncontrolled procedure, the asymmetrical reinforcer ratio could covary with subjects' performances. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) patterns obtained from the controlled procedure approximated isobias functions predicted by criterion location measures of bias. The uncontrolled procedure produced variable ROC patterns that were somewhat like the isobias predictions made by likelihood ratio measures of bias; however, the obtained reinforcer ratio became more extreme as discriminability decreased. The obtained pattern of bias was directly related to the obtained reinforcer ratio. This research indicates that criterion location measures seem to be preferable indices of response bias.     

Detection of change in shape: an advantage for concavities

Shape representation was studied using a change detection task. Observers viewed two individual shapes in succession, either identical or one a slightly altered version of the other, and reported whether they detected a change. We found a dramatic advantage for concave compared to convex changes of equal magnitude. Observers were more accurate when a concavity along the contour was introduced, or removed, compared to a convexity. This result sheds light on the underlying representation of visual shape, and in particular the central role played by part-boundaries. Moreover, this finding shows how change detection methodology can serve as a useful tool in studying the specific form of visual representations.     

Consensus effects in categorization decisions

A previous study (Gilat et al., J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 3 (1997) 83) has shown that the incentive to reach consensus can raise the tendency to rely on base rates in signal detection decisions and can reduce the probability that less likely events will be accurately classified. This phenomenon was named the “consensus effect”. The current study assesses the conditions under which this effect develops and in particular the effects of information about the game and of the incentive structure on the learning process. The results of three experiments show that the learning process slows when participants have information about the actual state of nature. This finding is captured by a reinforcement learning model with the assumption that information narrows the distribution of the initial propensities for choosing among cutoffs. The results are further evidence for the utility of the combination of learning models and analyses of cognitive processes for the prediction of decision making in situations involving multiple players.     

Decision rules and signal detectability in a reinforcement-density discrimination

Two probabilistic schedules of reinforcement, one richer in reinforcement, the other leaner, were overlapping stimuli to be discriminated in a choice situation. One of two schedules was in effect for 12 seconds. Then, during a 6-second choice period, the first left-key peck was reinforced if the richer schedule had been in effect, and the first right-key peck was reinforced if the leaner schedule had been in effect. The two schedule stimuli may be viewed as two binomial distributions of the number of reinforcement opportunities. Each schedule yielded different frequencies of 16 substimuli. Each substimulus had a particular type of outcome pattern for the 12 seconds during which a schedule was in effect, and consisted of four consecutive light-cued 3-second T-cycles, each having 0 or 1 reinforced center-key pecks. Substimuli therefore contained 0 to 4 reinforcers. On any 3-second cycle, the first center-key peck darkened that key and was reinforced with probability .75 or .25 in the richer or leaner schedules, respectively. In terms of the theory of signal detection, detectability neared the maximum possible d′ for all four pigeons. Left-key peck probability increased when number of reinforcers in a substimulus increased, when these occurred closer to choice, or when pellets were larger for correct left-key pecks than for correct right-key pecks. Averaged over different temporal patterns of reinforcement in a substimulus, substimuli with the same number of reinforcers produced choice probabilities that matched relative expected payoff rather than maximized one alternative.