Sensory superstition on multiple interval schedules.

Pigeons were exposed to multiple schedules in which an irregular repeating sequence of five stimulus components was correlated with the same reinforcement schedule throughout. Stable, idiosyncratic, response-rate differences developed across components. Components were rank-ordered by response rate; an approximately linear relation was found between rank order and the deviation of mean response rate from the overall mean rate. Nonzero slopes of this line were found for multiple fixed-interval and variable-time schedules and for multiple variable-interval schedules both when number of reinforcements was the same in all components and when it varied. The steepest function slopes were found in the variable schedules with relatively long interfood intervals and relatively short component durations. When just one stimulus was correlated with all components of a multiple variable-interval schedule, the slope of the line was close to zero. The results suggest that food-rate differences may be induced initially by different reactions to the stimuli and subsequently maintained by food.     

The acquisition of observing.

Pigeons were exposed to stimuli correlated with the presence or absence of a variable-interval 60-second schedule of reinforcement only while they depressed a crossbar or "perch." In the first experiment, the stimuli were different tilts of a line displayed on the key. When the difference in brightness between the line and the background (salience) was maximal, seven of eight birds acquired the discrimination, but when the difference was reduced by 50%, only one succeeded. In the second experiment, wavelength of chamber illumination served as the relevant dimension. Neither experiment showed a large effect attributable to the magnitude of the difference (disparity) between the positive and the negative stimulus. Individual differences in time spent observing were positively correlated with level of discrimination in the presence of the stimuli. All birds produced the positive stimulus for a greater proportion of the available time than they did the negative stimulus. This may be the mechanism that provides selective reinforcement of observing. Finally, the formation of a discrimination was analyzed in terms of changes in the proportion of time spent in contact with the discriminative stimuli.     

Choice and multiple reinforcers

Pigeons chose between equivalent two-component mixed and multiple terminal-link schedules of reinforcement in the concurrent-chains procedure. The pigeons preferred the multiple schedule over the mixed when the components of the compound schedules were differentiated in terms of density of reinforcement, but the pigeons were indifferent when the components were differentiated in terms of number of reinforcers per cycle. Taken together, these results indicate that a local variable, the interval to the first reinforcer, but not a molar variable, the number of reinforcers, was sufficient to differentiate the components and thereby evoke preference.     

A comparison of responding maintained under second-order schedules of intramuscular cocaine injection or food presentation in squirrel monkeys.

Key pressing by squirrel monkeys was maintained under second-order schedules of either intramuscular cocaine injection or food presentation. Under one schedule, each completion of a 10-response fixed-ratio unit produced a brief visual stimulus; the first fixed-ratio unit completed after 30 minutes elapsed produced the stimulus paired with either cocaine injection or food presentation. Generally, short pauses followed by high rates of responding were maintained within the fixed-ratio units, and responding was positively accelerated over the 30-minute interval. Under another schedule, each completion of a 3-minute fixed-interval unit produced the brief stimulus; completion of the 10th fixed-interval unit produced the stimulus paired with either cocaine injection or food presentation. Generally, short pauses followed by high rates of responding were maintained within the fixed-ratio units, and responding was positively accelerated over the 30-minute interval. Under another schedule, each completion of a 3-minute fixed-interval unit produced the brief stimulus; completion of the 10th fixed-interval unit produced the stimulus paired with either cocaine injection or food presentation. Rates of responding increased within the fixed-interval units, and to a greater extent over the entire 10 fixed-interval units. Patterns of responding depended more on the schedule of reinforcement than on whether cocaine or food maintained responding. Omitting the brief stimuli following all but the last fixed-ratio or fixed-interval units decreased average rates and altered the patterns of responding. Substituting a visual stimulus that was never paired with cocaine or food following all but the last fixed-ratio or fixed-interval units decreased response rates to a lesser extent and did not substantially alter patterns of responding. When the duration of the paired stimulus was varied from .3 to 30.0 seconds, the highest response rates occurred at intermediate durations (1.0 to 10.0 seconds). The manner in which the stimulus changes affected performances depended more on the schedule of reinforcement than on whether cocaine injection or food presentation maintained responding.     

An experimental analysis of the effects of d-amphetamine and cocaine on the acquisition and performance of response chains in monkeys.

In one component of a multiple schedule of food presentation, monkeys acquired a different four-response chain each session by responding sequentially on three keys in the presence of four geometric forms (learning). In the other component, the four-response chain was the same each session (performance). Both d-amphetamine and cocaine, at the higher doses, disrupted the behavior in the learning component; the overall response rate decreased, the overall accuracy was impaired (i.e., percent errors increased), and there was less within-session error reduction. The performance component was generally less sensitive than the learning component to the disruptive effects of both drugs on rate and accuracy. After pre-feeding or during an extended session, the response rate decreased in both components, but accuracy was generally unaffected. When the four discriminative stimuli in both components were removed, the behavior was disrupted to a greater extent in the performance component. The disruptive effects of both drugs on behavior in the learning component were attenuated when the drugs were administered during the session after the response chain had been acquired. It was concluded that the greater sensitivity of the learning component to disruptive drug effects is related to the relatively weak stimulus control and/or the lower rate of reinforcement associated with that component.     

Effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine on the repeated acquisition and performance of conditional discriminations.

The acute and chronic effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine on food-reinforced behavior were investigated in pigeons responding on a two-component multiple schedule. In one component, the behavioral task consisted of the same chain of conditional discriminations each session (performance). In the other component, the chain of conditional discriminations was changed from session to session (learning). In comparison to control sessions, both acute cocaine and d-amphetamine increased errors in each component of the multiple schedule. Responding in the learning component, however, was generally disrupted at lower doses than those that affected responding in the performance component. At high doses, both drugs produced pauses in responding in each component in three of the four subjects. Pausing engendered by d-amphetamine was approximately twice as long as that under cocaine. Upon chronic administration, both the pausing and error-increasing effects of each drug diminished. Drug-induced changes in timeout responding, however, did not decrease during chronic administration. Redeterminations of the d-amphetamine dose-effect curves following chronic cocaine administration suggested the existence of cross-tolerance between cocaine and d-amphetamine. Both the acute and chronic data are consistent with the view that conditions of stimulus control may modulate the behavioral effects of drugs.     

Elimination of reinforced behavior: intermittent schedules of not-responding

Pigeons' key pecking resulted in food according to either a variable-ratio or a variable-interval schedule. At the same time, food was available for not pecking for a specified time. The required time of not-pecking was segmented into not-responding units, and these units were followed by food according to a fixed-ratio schedule. Both unit duration and the number required were varied. In general, the shorter the time unit or the smaller the ratio, the lower was response rate. When total required not-responding time was constant, but changes in unit duration and the number required altered how the total was achieved, shorter units produced lower rates. Other conditions involved substitution of food delivered independent of responding for the not-responding schedule. With low and moderate total times to food presentation, the not-responding schedule produced lower rates; with the longest times, the response-independent schedule generated less responding. When considered in terms of relative frequency of food presentation available from a source other than pecking, the not-responding schedule reduced rate more effectively than did the response-independent schedule. Comparisons with other research suggested that food presented dependent on not responding compared favorably with punishment as a procedure for reducing response rate. Transient effects differed. Although punishment temporarily depresses rate when first imposed and temporarily enhances it when first removed, food given for not responding quickly generated steady-state rates.     

Effects of fixed-ratio sample and choice response requirements upon oddity matching

Three pigeons were trained on oddity matching in which either 1, 4, 8, 16, or 32 sample-key observing responses were required to turn off the sample stimuli and turn on the comparison stimuli. Oddity accuracy increased when the observing-response requirement was raised and decreased when the requirement was lowered. Next, while the observing requirement was maintained at one response, the number of responses required to the comparison stimuli was either 1, 4, 8, 16, or 32. Under these conditions, choice was defined as the comparison that first accumulated the required number of responses. In general, increasing the comparison-response requirement decreased accuracy and lowering the comparison requirement increased accuracy. The fixed-ratio observing requirements appeared to facilitate control by stimuli serving an instructional function.     

Fixed-interval responding under second-order schedules of food presentation or cocaine injection.

Squirrel monkeys operated a key under second-order schedules in which every tenth completion of a 5-minute fixed interval resulted in either presentation of food or intravenous injection of cocaine. When a 2-second light was presented at the completion of the component fixed-interval schedules, positively accelerated responding developed and was maintained in each component. Over a tenfold range of doses of cocaine(30 to 300 microgram/kg/injection) and amounts of food (0.75 to 7.5 g/presentation); the second-order schedule of cocaine injection maintained higher average rates of responding than the second-order schedule of food presentation. Substituting saline for cocaine or eliminating food presentation decreased average rates of responding. When no stimulus change occurred at the completion of the first nine component fixed-interval schedules, but the 2-second light and food presentation or cocaine injection still occurred after the tenth component, only low and relatively constant rates of responding were maintained in each component. Patterns of responding characteristic of 5-minute fixed-interval schedules were maintained by the 2-second light paired with either cocaine injection or food presentation, though the maximum frequency of cocaine injection or food presentation was less than once per 50 minutes.     

Control of pigeons' pecking by trace stimuli

In Experiment I, pigeons' pecking a white key was reinforced with grain when white was immediately preceded by a vertical white line on a green surround, but not by green alone. This procedure produced control of pecking by the line. Next, pecking white was reinforced after vertical line on green, but not after green alone or other orientations of the white line on green. The line-tilt dimension initially did not control pecking, a result that showed that interdimensional (line versus no line) training does not always result in dimensional control. Line-tilt control was eventually established but was accompanied by a decrease in interdimensional control. In Experiment II, interdimensional training, with or without a trace interval intervening between line on green or green alone and white, was followed by tests for line-tilt control. While interdimensional control was unaffected by the trace interval, line-tilt control tended to be less with the trace interval. This dissociation of interdimensional and dimensional control, as well as the failure of interdimensional training to produce dimensional control in Experiment I, suggests that the line stimulus is multidimensional.