运动员的自我控制：重要理论及研究进展

摘要 运动员大赛最佳竞技表现的核心是良好的自我控制。本文介绍了解释自我控制与竞技表现关系的6个理论的核心要点和实证研究,包括自动执行假说（Baumeister, 1984）、加工效能理论（Eysenck & Calvo, 1992）、注意控制理论（Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007）、自我控制的力量模型（(Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Baumeister, Vohs , & Tice, 2007）、心理控制的逆过程理论（Wegner, 1994）和流畅状态理论（Csikszentmihalyi, 1990）;还介绍了通过心理训练以提高运动员自我控制能力的4个理论,包括心理建设综合模式（刘淑慧,1998,2001）、逆境应对训练模式（姒刚彦,2006,2007）、心理技能训练模型（Vealey, 2007）和中国运动员心理建设系统（张凯,张力为,2011）。本文讨论了这两类10个理论的异同及在运动员自我控制研究中的意义;最后指出,对不同的自我控制理论同时进行检验和比较的研究或许具有潜在价值。 关键词 自我控制,心理训练,运动员,比赛     

关于过度医疗的经济学分析与伦理

近年来,过度医疗问题引起医学伦理学界的普遍关注。过度医疗不仅是一个伦理问题,同时也是一种经济现象。过度医疗的经济学表现是医生诱导需求,直接成因是缺乏弹性的医疗需求,存在的市场环境是垄断竞争。遏止过度医疗需采取相应的伦理与经济对策。     

Secular Tolerance? Anti‐Muslim Sentiment in Western Europe

The literature about secularization proposes two distinct explanations of anti‐Muslim sentiment in secularized societies. The first theory understands it in terms of religious competition between Muslims and the remaining minority of orthodox Protestants; the second understands it as resulting from value conflicts between Muslims and the nonreligious majority. The two theories are tested by means of a multilevel analysis of the European Values Study 2008. Our findings indicate that, although more secularized countries are on average more tolerant towards Muslims and Islam, strongest anti‐Muslim attitudes are nonetheless found among the nonreligious in these countries.     

二语句法加工的认知机制、影响因素及其神经基础

二语(L2)和母语(L1)在句法加工方面的差异是量的不同还是质的表现？当前, 该问题已成为语言认知领域研究的热点。研究表明, 二语句法加工受到二语习得年龄、语言熟练度、工作记忆、二语习得方式等因素的影响。有关二语句法加工的理论主要有浅层结构假说、D/P模型和统一竞争模型。未来研究应注重探讨二语句法加工中二语熟练度及二语习得年龄的交互效应, 同时也应当加强儿童二语句法加工能力的研究。     

组织竞争与教师组织认同的关系机制

采用组织认同问卷、组织认同图解量表、组织竞争问卷、组织同一性知觉问卷和组织声望知觉问卷对700名教师进行施测,考察组织竞争影响教师组织认同的关系机制.结果表明:外部竞争、内部竞争、组织同一性知觉、组织声望知觉均与教师组织认同呈显著正相关;外部竞争通过两条路径影响教师的组织认同水平,一是外部竞争—组织同一性知觉—组织认同,二是外部竞争—组织同一性知觉—组织声望知觉—组织认同;内部竞争通过组织声望知觉影响教师的组织认同水平,即内部竞争—组织声望知觉—组织认同.     

竞争合作与学业成绩的关系：学业自我概念的中介作用

该研究旨在探讨学业自我概念对竞争合作与学业成就关系的影响。研究采用合作竞争态度量表、学业自我描述问卷对397名初中生进行调查。结果发现：1）竞争与学业成就间存在显著的正相关,竞争意识强者学业成绩越好;2）合作与学业成绩间不存在显著相关关系;3）学业自我概念在竞争与学业成绩之间起着完全中介作用。     

Tracking hand movements captures the response dynamics of the evaluative priming effect

We tested the response dynamics of the evaluative priming effect (i.e. facilitation of target responses following evaluatively congruent compared with evaluatively incongruent primes) using a mouse tracking procedure that records hand movements during the execution of categorisation tasks. In Experiment 1, when participants performed the evaluative categorisation task but not the non-evaluative semantic categorisation task, their mouse trajectories for evaluatively incongruent trials curved more toward the opposite response than those for evaluatively congruent trials, indicating the emergence of evaluative priming effects based on response competition. In Experiment 2, implementing a task-switching procedure in which evaluative and non-evaluative categorisation tasks were intermixed, we obtained reliable evaluative priming effects in the non-evaluative semantic categorisation task as well as in the evaluative categorisation task when participants assigned attention to the evaluative stimulus dimension. Analyses of hand movements revealed that the evaluative priming effects in the evaluative categorisation task were reflected in the mouse trajectories, while evaluative priming effects in the non-evaluative categorisation tasks were reflected in initiation times (i.e. the time elapsed between target onset and first mouse movement). Based on these findings, we discuss the methodological benefits of the mouse tracking procedure and the underlying processes of evaluative priming effects.     

Hormonal changes after competition predict sex‐differentiated decision‐making

Recent neuroendocrinology research has pointed out that testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) changes after social interactions can predict risk‐taking behavior in decision‐making, depending on the sex of participants. However, previous research has focused on the effects of the changes in only one hormone, rather than the interaction between them, even though C can suppress T activity. Our aim was to test, in men and women, the role of T changes moderated by C changes after competition in decision‐making. Thus, 48 males and 46 females completed the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) after a laboratory competition or a noncompetitive task (control task). Saliva samples were collected before and after the competition/control task. IGT was employed to measure risk‐taking decision‐making, considering the degree of uncertainty. Our results showed sex‐differentiated effects of T and C changes on risk‐taking behavior. On the one hand, men from both task groups (Competition/Control) who had higher C and T changes after competition showed more risk‐taking decision‐making (higher IG Risk). On the other hand, women from the competitive task who had high C and T showed conservative decision‐making. Therefore, these results show sex‐differentiated decision‐making profiles, which would help to understand how men and women behave after experiencing a competitive social context.     

Effects of competitive reward distribution on auditing and competitive responding

This study allowed subjects to audit each other's responding during a series of competitive contests. Six pairs of female college students competed in 3-min contests in which the competitive response was a knob pull. A sum of money was divided using a proportional distribution or a 100%/0% reward distribution. In the proportional distribution, a subject's proportion of the sum was her proportion of the total number of responses. Also, in every contest either subject could make a response that would end the contest prematurely and give both subjects the same amount: a sum equal to 33% of the competitive total. Each subject could press either or both of two audit buttons that displayed her own and the other's response total for 10 s. Results replicated earlier findings in showing the superiority of the proportional distribution in total number of competitive responses made. No subject audited continuously, and only 1 audited most of the time. Most audits were interpersonal, including both own and other's scores. Auditing typically was more frequent in 100%/0% contests in which subjects were more likely to stop the contest when they were far behind. Winners were more likely to audit than were losers. Competitive response rates increased when the differences revealed by audits were small and decreased when they were large. Overall audit patterns were consistent with the view that feedback as "news" is more often sought when it can lead to improved outcomes.