The promise and potential of studying the “invisible hand” of teacher influence on peer relations and student outcomes: A commentary

Peers influence children's social-emotional development and school engagement in important and unique ways. Recent research on peer social networks documents that children are affected by the nature of the school-based peer ecology, as well as by their personal peer experiences. Yet, little is known about how teachers affect the peer ecology, nor how teachers can promote positive peer influences in the school context. The four studies in this special section examine this issue. Together, they document the promise and the potential of studying the “invisible hand” of teacher influence on peer relations, and illustrate the need for further research in this area. This commentary considers the contributions of these papers for conceptualizing processes of transactional teacher and peer influence on student outcomes, and implications for interventions designed to reduce problem behaviors or increase school engagement. In addition, it considers the limitations of current knowledge and directions for future research.     

Sex and ear differences in spontaneous and click-evoked otoacoustic emissions in young adults

Effects of sex and handedness on the production of spontaneous and click-evoked otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) were explored in a non-hearing impaired population (ages 17-25 years). A sex difference in OAEs, either produced spontaneously (spontaneous OAEs or SOAEs) or in response to auditory stimuli (click-evoked OAEs or CEOAEs) has been reported in infants and children, but healthy young adults seldom have been the target of study. In the current data, a robust sexual dimorphism was confirmed, with women producing more numerous and stronger SOAEs, and CEOAEs with greater response amplitude compared to men. A right-ear advantage was found for the number of SOAEs produced and, in women, for SOAE power. Although handedness did not moderate the ear asymmetry in production, exploratory analyses revealed that departures from strong right hand preference were associated in the present sample with reduced numbers or strengths of OAEs. The results are discussed with respect to differential exposure to androgens during prenatal development.     

A model of communicative perspective-taking for typical and atypical populations of children

Successful communication requires that individuals attend to the perspective of their conversational partners and use this information to modify their behavior accordingly. This paper presents a framework by which to understand children’s communicative perspective-taking skills and, within this framework, outlines three routes by which children’s communicative perspective-taking performance can be disrupted. First, children may have difficulty in communicative contexts due to deficits in mentalizing ability whereby they are unable to appreciate another’s perspective. Second, children may have intact mentalizing abilities but do not have the cognitive skills to support the use of this information when generating communicative behaviors. Third, decreased social exposure may lead to exacerbated deficits in either mentalizing ability or the use of mentalistic information within communicative contexts. Patterns within both typical and atypical populations (i.e., autism, ADHD, and mood disorders) are reviewed.     

Determinants of ethnic identity development in adulthood: A longitudinal study

Ethnic identity is defined in terms of the interaction between exploration of and commitment to a given cultural background. The present study investigated the effect of individual background, role transitions, and the social environment on the development of ethnic identity in a sample of German adults aged 21–73 years (N = 2,940). Additionally, identity transitions and the moderating effect of disequilibrating life events on identity over time were examined (N = 827). Overall, results are consistent with findings for other identity domains: Respondents could be assigned to one of four identity stages, ranging from unexamined to achieved identity. Particularly, the individual background and the extent of community involvement affected ethnic identity formation in adulthood. Longitudinal analyses revealed that only one-third of respondents had remained in the same identity stage; most individuals had transitioned forward or backward. Changes in ethnic identity were not moderated by disequilibrating life events.     

早期亲子触觉经验促进个体社会性发展的心理机制

近期研究显示,早期亲子触觉经验和个体的社会性发展存在密切联系。关于这种联系产生的原因,已有研究多从神经科学的角度,探讨CT传入神经(C-tactile afferents)及有关环路在其间可能起到的作用。基于已有文献,本文将提出一个综合模型,系统阐述背后涉及的心理机制,着重论证亲子关系、个体探索行为以及与之关联的心理成分在其间扮演的角色,并在此基础上从研究设计的局限、有关变量关系的多元性以及未来可拓展方向对该领域研究进行进一步讨论和展望。     

应对校园欺凌:社会情绪能力的干预研究

校园欺凌现象在全球范围普遍存在,为有效解决校园欺凌问题,研究一采用《特拉华校园受欺凌量表》、《简易应对方式量表》以及《社会情绪健康量表》对416名5～6年级小学生进行了调查,结果发现,小学生消极应对方式可以显著预测校园受欺凌,社会情绪能力在消极应对方式与校园受欺凌中起调节作用。此基础上,研究二开展基于社会情绪能力的校园受欺凌团体辅导干预研究。结果表明,社会情绪能力的提升可以显著降低校园受欺凌水平。     

正念对亲社会行为的影响

正念在促进亲社会行为上的表现逐渐受到关注,越来越多的研究者针对正念对亲社会行为的影响展开探索。已有的理论研究认为正念可以通过提高注意力、身体意识、去具体化能力、积极情感体验、情绪调节能力和减少自我感来促进亲社会行为; 实证研究结果表明,特质正念能够正向预测亲社会行为,正念干预通过提高共情能力、同情体验、情绪调节能力以及去自动化认知来促进亲社会行为。未来研究需要在完善系统的正念—亲社会行为理论框架基础上,进一步挖掘正念对亲社会行为的不同影响及其机制,关注潜在的消极影响,同时发展生态效度更高的研究方法或指标来考量正念与亲社会行为之间的关系,提升正念干预对亲社会行为影响的长期有效性与普适性。     

The importance of reflection and evaluation processes in daily training sessions for progression toward elite level swimming performance

Self-regulated learning (SRL) involves self-directed metacognitive subprocesses and motivational beliefs that facilitate more effective and efficient learning. We investigated whether youth swimmers who are on track to becoming elite swimmers apply SRL subprocesses more frequently in their daily training sessions compared with swimmers who are not on this track. Insights into swimmers’ use of training-centered SRL could advance understanding about underlying individual characteristics that contribute to optimal engagement in daily training and, consequently, progression toward elite level swimming performance. We collected data on training-centered SRL subprocesses (evaluation, planning, reflection, speaking up, effort and self-efficacy) and performance data for 157 youth swimmers aged 12–21 years (73 males and 84 females). The results of a multivariate analysis of covariance revealed significantly higher scores for reflection processes during training for high-performing swimmers but lower scores for effort compared with lower-performing swimmers (p < 0.05). A closer examination of the high-performing group showed that those demonstrating greater improvement during a season scored significantly higher for evaluation processes after training compared with those evidencing less improvement during a season (p < 0.05). Significant between-group differences in SRL subprocesses remained after adjusting for differences in weekly training hours. Youth swimmers on track to becoming elite swimmers are characterized by more frequent use of reflection processes during training and evaluation processes after training, which suggests that these swimmers’ learning and training processes are more effective and efficient. Ultimately, this could contribute to a higher quality of daily training, which may result in greater improvements during a season, higher performance levels, and a greater chance of reaching the level of elite swimming performance.     

Therapeutic Relationship

This article addresses the important role of the therapeutic relationship in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). As has been noted from the inception of CBT, there are critical features of both the therapist and the relationship that optimize the likelihood of therapeutic success, and this article briefly describes these features. It is further argued that a successful therapeutic relationship in CBT is not static but is flexible and adaptive both across and within clients, as their needs and concerns vary. A positive therapeutic relationship is viewed within CBT as a necessary but insufficient condition for change, as the relationship serves as a foundation upon which interventions are scaffolded, but that the client’s response to various interventions itself shapes the interactions between therapist and client. Finally, it is argued that the key therapeutic ingredients of CBT are largely teachable, and the article provides several suggestions to promote an effective therapeutic relationship in CBT.