Feedback functions for variable-interval reinforcement

On a given variable-interval schedule, the average obtained rate of reinforcement depends on the average rate of responding. An expression for this feedback effect is derived from the assumptions that free-operant responding occurs in bursts with a constant tempo, alternating with periods of engagement in other activities; that the durations of bursts and other activities are exponentially distributed; and that the rates of initiating and terminating bursts are inversely related. The expression provides a satisfactory account of the data of three experiments.     

Varying wheel-running reinforcer duration within a session: effect on the revolution-postreinforcement pause relation

Previous investigations of wheel-running reinforcement that manipulated reinforcer duration across conditions showed a strong relation between wheel-running rate and average postreinforcement pause (PRP) duration. To determine if the basis of this relation across conditions was a local effect of fatigue or satiation, the correlation between revolutions run and the duration of the immediately following PRP was investigated under conditions in which reinforcer duration was either constant or variable within a session. Seven male Wistar rats pressed a lever on a fixed-interval 60-s reinforcement schedule with the opportunity to run for 60 s as the reinforcing consequence. In the constant-duration condition, the duration of the reinforcer was always 60 s. In the variable-duration condition, the duration of the reinforcer varied between 2 and 240 s with a mean of 60 s. Mean correlations between revolutions run and the next PRP duration for constant, variable, and constant conditions were -.07, .20, and -.07, respectively. Although the positive correlation in the variable-duration condition is consistent with an effect of momentary fatigue or satiation, little of the variance in PRP duration appears to be attributable to these factors.     

概率估计的趋势效应及其对决策的影响机制——基于心理动量的视角

概率是反映风险与不确定性的重要指标, 概率估计具有趋势效应, 会对决策产生影响。文章描述了概率估计趋势效应的两种表现形式, 概率估计变化的趋势性(即不同时间点概率估计变化产生的趋势作用)与单边概率估计的趋势性(即高于或低于某个概率区间范畴的上界或下界的估计表述所产生的趋势作用), 揭示了概率估计趋势效应对于个体判断、决策行为和非理性决策偏差的影响; 基于心理动量的理论视角提出了一个整合模型, 阐述了概率估计趋势效应催生心理动量体验继而引发后续决策行为的内在机理。未来的研究可进一步关注：多方信息来源主体下概率估计的趋势效应; 动态趋势效应与静态概率估计的交互作用; 风险沟通中的概率估计变化趋势。     

Disappearing and appearing: Temporal binding effects are consistent across situations

Sense of agency refers to the feeling of control over actions and action outcomes. Previous studies were mostly confined to the situation of performing actions to make objects appear, while it remains unexplored whether we experience sense of agency when making objects disappear. Here, we examined the temporal binding effect, an implicit index of sense of agency, in performing actions to make objects disappear and compared the magnitude of this effect in the appearing and disappearing situations. Results showed that the temporal binding effect emerged when object’s disappearances served as action outcomes. Moreover, the temporal binding effects in the appearing and disappearing situations did not differ significantly. Our findings extend the temporal binding effect to the situation of voluntarily making objects disappear, suggesting a comparable level of implicit sense of agency when voluntarily making objects disappear and appear.     

Relating latent class membership to external variables: An overview

In this article we provide an overview of existing approaches for relating latent class membership to external variables of interest. We extend on the work of Nylund-Gibson et al. (Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2019, 26, 967), who summarize models with distal outcomes by providing an overview of most recommended modeling options for models with covariates and larger models with multiple latent variables as well. We exemplify the modeling approaches using data from the General Social Survey for a model with a distal outcome where underlying model assumptions are violated, and a model with multiple latent variables. We discuss software availability and provide example syntax for the real data examples in Latent GOLD.     

Measurement bias and error correction in a two-stage estimation for multilevel IRT models

Among current state-of-the-art estimation methods for multilevel IRT models, the two-stage divide-and-conquer strategy has practical advantages, such as clearer definition of factors, convenience for secondary data analysis, convenience for model calibration and fit evaluation, and avoidance of improper solutions. However, various studies have shown that, under the two-stage framework, ignoring measurement error in the dependent variable in stage II leads to incorrect statistical inferences. To this end, we proposed a novel method to correct both measurement bias and measurement error of latent trait estimates from stage I in the stage II estimation. In this paper, the HO-IRT model is considered as the measurement model, and a linear mixed effects model on overall (i.e., higher-order) abilities is considered as the structural model. The performance of the proposed correction method is illustrated and compared via a simulation study and a real data example using the National Educational Longitudinal Survey data (NELS 88). Results indicate that structural parameters can be recovered better after correcting measurement biases and errors.     

A Gibbs sampler for the multidimensional four-parameter logistic item response model via a data augmentation scheme

The four-parameter logistic (4PL) item response model, which includes an upper asymptote for the correct response probability, has drawn increasing interest due to its suitability for many practical scenarios. This paper proposes a new Gibbs sampling algorithm for estimation of the multidimensional 4PL model based on an efficient data augmentation scheme (DAGS). With the introduction of three continuous latent variables, the full conditional distributions are tractable, allowing easy implementation of a Gibbs sampler. Simulation studies are conducted to evaluate the proposed method and several popular alternatives. An empirical data set was analysed using the 4PL model to show its improved performance over the three-parameter and two-parameter logistic models. The proposed estimation scheme is easily accessible to practitioners through the open-source IRTlogit package.     

An item response tree model with not-all-distinct end nodes for non-response modelling

The non-response model in Knott et al. (1991, Statistician, 40, 217) can be represented as a tree model with one branch for response/non-response and another branch for correct/incorrect response, and each branch probability is characterized by an item response theory model. In the model, it is assumed that there is only one source of non-responses. However, in questionnaires or educational tests, non-responses might come from different sources, such as test speededness, inability to answer, lack of motivation, and sensitive questions. To better accommodate such more realistic underlying mechanisms, we propose a a tree model with four end nodes, not all distinct, for non-response modelling. The Laplace-approximated maximum likelihood estimation for the proposed model is suggested. The validation of the proposed estimation procedure and the advantage of the proposed model over traditional methods are demonstrated in simulations. For illustration, the methodologies are applied to data from the 2012 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The analysis shows that the proposed tree model has a better fit to PISA data than other existing models, providing a useful tool to distinguish the sources of non-responses.     

Animal models of source memory

Source memory is the aspect of episodic memory that encodes the origin (i.e., source) of information acquired in the past. Episodic memory (i.e., our memories for unique personal past events) typically involves source memory because those memories focus on the origin of previous events. Source memory is at work when, for example, someone tells a favorite joke to a person while avoiding retelling the joke to the friend who originally shared the joke. Importantly, source memory permits differentiation of one episodic memory from another because source memory includes features that were present when the different memories were formed. This article reviews recent efforts to develop an animal model of source memory using rats. Experiments are reviewed which suggest that source memory is dissociated from other forms of memory. The review highlights strengths and weaknesses of a number of animal models of episodic memory. Animal models of source memory may be used to probe the biological bases of memory. Moreover, these models can be combined with genetic models of Alzheimer's disease to evaluate pharmacotherapies that ultimately have the potential to improve memory.     

任务呈现方式、双任务反应顺序影响算术估算策略选择与执行

采用选择/无选范式,通过操纵任务呈现方式(估算题目的数字消失与否)与主次任务反应顺序(先反应算术任务或先反应字母任务),考察了双任务协调在算术策略选择与执行中的潜在作用。结果显示:(1)不同双任务呈现情境中个体的算术策略表现有明显区别。算术题目数字不消失相比消失时,个体对主、次任务的回答正确率都比较低,在策略选择上更倾向于选择较简单策略,在策略执行上准确性偏低;(2)双任务反应顺序会影响算术策略运用表现。先反应算术任务时,双任务情境只影响策略执行的准确性;而先反应字母任务时,双任务情境对策略执行的准确性和反应速度均发挥干扰作用,且估算题目的数字消失与否对策略选择准确性的影响更大,策略选择适应性之间的差异亦更加明显。上述发现对于深入理解双任务协调功能在策略运用中的作用机制具有重要意义。