Excessive confidence in visually-based estimates

People exhibit excessive confidence in visually-based estimates, which in turn biases decision making. Three experiments support this assertion. Experiment 1 shows a strong impact of presentation format on estimation of proportions. Experiment 2 shows that people rely on these erroneous estimates to make incentive-compatible decisions even when objective information can be easily obtained. Experiment 3 demonstrates that the biased decisions disappear when confidence in visually-based estimates is called into question by the perceived complexity of the stimulus.     

The effects of fixed‐interval schedules on variability of pigeons' pecking location

Many studies that have investigated performance under reinforcement schedules have measured response rate or interresponse time, which reflect the temporal dimension of responding; however, relatively few studies have examined other dimensions. The present study investigated the effects of fixed‐interval schedules on the location of pigeons' pecking response. A circular response area 22.4 cm in diameter was used so that the pecking responses were effective over a wide range. Pigeons were exposed to a fixed‐interval schedule whose requirement was systematically varied between conditions. Response location moved closer to the location of the last reinforced response as time elapsed in each trial. Additionally, as the fixed‐interval duration requirement increased, response locations shifted to the border of the response area and the variability of response locations increased. These results suggest that fixed‐interval schedules systematically control response location.     

HUMAN RESPONDING ON RANDOM‐INTERVAL SCHEDULES OF RESPONSE‐COST PUNISHMENT: THE ROLE OF REDUCED REINFORCEMENT DENSITY

An experiment with adult humans investigated the effects of response‐contingent money loss (response‐cost punishment) on monetary‐reinforced responding. A yoked‐control procedure was used to separate the effects on responding of the response‐cost contingency from the effects of reduced reinforcement density. Eight adults pressed buttons for money on a three‐component multiple reinforcement schedule. During baseline, responding in all components produced money gains according to a random‐interval 20‐s schedule. During punishment conditions, responding during the punishment component conjointly produced money losses according to a random‐interval schedule. The value of the response‐cost schedule was manipulated across conditions to systematically evaluate the effects on responding of response‐cost frequency. Participants were assigned to one of two yoked‐control conditions. For participants in the Yoked Punishment group, during punishment conditions money losses were delivered in the yoked component response independently at the same intervals that money losses were produced in the punishment component. For participants in the Yoked Reinforcement group, responding in the yoked component produced the same net earnings as produced in the punishment component. In 6 of 8 participants, contingent response cost selectively decreased response rates in the punishment component and the magnitude of the decrease was directly related to the punishment schedule value. Under punishment conditions, for participants in the Yoked Punishment group response rates in the yoked component also decreased, but the decrease was less than that observed in the punishment component, whereas for participants in the Yoked Reinforcement group response rates in the yoked component remained similar to rates in the no‐punishment component. These results provide further evidence that contingent response cost functions similarly to noxious punishers in that it appears to suppress responding apart from its effects on reinforcement density.     

Modeling storage and retrieval processes with clinical populations with applications examining alcohol-induced amnesia and Korsakoff amnesia

Multinomial processing tree models can provide for measures of underlying cognitive processes. In this paper, the Chechile [Chechile, R. A. (2004). New multinomial models for the Chechile-Meyer task. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 48, 364-384] 6P model is described and applied to several applications involving clinical populations. The model provides for separate measures of storage and retrieval. Monte Carlo studies were conducted to examine the relative accuracy of two methods for obtaining an overall condition estimate for the 6P model, i.e., averaging estimates found for individuals versus pooling the multinomial frequency data before estimating the model parameters. The sampling studies showed that the pooling of frequencies resulted in more accurate parameter estimates. However, psychological assessment in clinical psychology requires precise measurement on an individual basis. In order to recover information about individuals from pooled frequency information, a modified jackknife method was advanced. The jackknife method is based on a contrast between the overall pooled frequency information and the pool frequency without the observations from a single individual. Another series of Monte Carlo simulations demonstrate that the new jackknife method resulted in better recovery of the correct individual parameter values relative to estimates based on only the data from the individual. Finally, the 6P model was used to examine the data from two previously reported studies with clinical populations. One application addressed the effect of alcohol-induced amnesia, and the other application dealt with Korsakoff amnesia. In both cases the pattern of storage and retrieval measurements resulted in a clarification of the underlying storage and retrieval differences between the clinical group and the control group.     

Optimal behavior and concurrent variable ratio-variable interval schedules

Concurrent variable ratio-variable interval (CONC VRVI) schedules of reinforcement, and the time-based analog of the same schedule (CONC VT*VT), have been used to determine if the matching law accounts for the distribution of choices between the behavior alternatives more accurately than the assumption that subjects distribute time between the alternatives to maximize total reinforcement rate. The results of those experiments leave room for interpretation. One problem is the lack of understanding of the theoretical outcomes associated with maximization in these schedules. A precise understanding of the characteristics of optimal behavior (OB) could help identify experimental evidence of OB. Here we derive equations that describe the optimal times the subject should spend on each alternative of the schedule. We provide a table of the optimal times for a wide range of parameter values of the schedule that experimenters can use to compare easily experimental results to the results expected if subjects behave optimally. We also derive a function m that relates matching and optimal performance and we prove interesting characteristics of the function. Finally, we describe features of OB with CONC VT*VT and with concurrent variable time schedules that can be used to identify evidence of OB.     

Time and order effects on causal learning

Five experiments were conducted to explore trial order and retention interval effects upon causal predictive judgments. Experiment 1 found that participants show a strong effect of trial order when a stimulus was sequentially paired with two different outcomes compared to a condition where both outcomes were presented intermixed. Experiment 2 found that a 48-h retention interval eliminates the trial order effect, so that participants gave a global judgment about the relationship between the stimulus and the two outcomes equivalent to the one given by participants that received the two phases intermixed. This result was replicated in Experiment 3 in a situation in which the probability of the outcome in the presence of the cue was changed from .5 for both outcomes (Experiments 1, 2, 4, and 5) to .75 and .25 for outcomes 1 and 2, respectively. Experiment 4 found that retention intervals ranging from 45 min to 48 h eliminated the trial order effect similarly. Experiment 5 found that a 10-min retention interval replicated the effect of time upon sequential training found in precedent experiments, regardless of whether participants remained within the laboratory during the retention interval or spent it outside. The combined results of this experimental series suggest that retention intervals reduce retroactive interference in causal learning by allowing participants to use all the information presented across phases, rather than differentially increasing or decreasing retrieval of information about each of them.     

错误记忆的来源：编码阶段／保持阶段

错误记忆是人们对未经验过事件或未学过单词的记忆。研究表明,不同实验室研究范式下引发的错误记忆在来源阶段上存在差异。本研究通过同时操纵预警提示和时间间隔两个因素来探讨错误记忆的来源问题。结果发现:关联性错误记忆出现预警效应,但不具有时间效应;误导性错误记忆则恰好相反。可见,关联性错误记忆可能主要发生在编码阶段,而误导性错误记忆则可能主要发生在保持阶段。     

Adaptive memory: longevity and learning intentionality of the animacy effect

The animacy effect—the finding that animates are better remembered than inanimates—is proving to be a robust empirical phenomenon. Considering the adaptiveness of the animate advantage, one might expect it to remain after long retention intervals and also to be present irrespectively of an intention to learn. The present study explores these two aspects. Different groups of participants learned (intentional learning) or rated the pleasantness (incidental learning) of animate and inanimate words; memory was tested immediately or after a 48?h delay. A significant animacy effect was obtained after both retention intervals and in both learning conditions. Two significant interactions revealed a larger animacy effect, as well as a larger effect of the retention interval, when learning was incidental. Our findings reinforce the robustness of the animacy effect and provide some insight into possible proximate mechanisms of the effect.     

Framing experts' (dis)agreements about uncertain environmental events

Agreements and disagreements between expert statements influence lay people's beliefs. But few studies have examined what is perceived as a disagreement. We report six experiments where people rated agreement between pairs of probabilistic statements about environmental events, attributed to two different experts or to the same expert at two different points in time. The statements differed in frame, by focusing on complementary outcomes (45% probability that smog will have negative health effects vs. 55% probability that it will not have such effects), in probability level (45% vs. 55% probability of negative effects), or in both respects. Opposite frames strengthened disagreement when combined with different probability levels. Approximate probabilities can be “framed” in yet another way by indicating reference values they are “over” or “under”. Statements that use different directional verbal terms (over vs. under 50%) indicated greater disagreement than statements with the same directional term but different probability levels (over 50% vs. over 70%). Framing and directional terms similarly affected consistency judgments when both statements were issued by the same expert at different occasions. The effect of framing on perceived agreement was significant for medium (10 and 20 percentage points) differences between probabilities, whereas the effect of directional term was stable for numerical differences up to 40 percentage points. To emphasize agreement between different estimates, they should be framed in the same way. To accentuate disagreements or changes of opinion, opposite framings should be used.     

Effects of decreasing intersession interval duration on graduated exposure treatment during simulated routine dental care

Reports suggest that individuals with developmental disabilities often engage in behavior during dental visits that precludes regular dental care. Graduated exposure therapies are an effective treatment for avoidant behavior in people with developmental delays, and some studies show that the duration of the intersession interval (ISI) can impact the effectiveness of graduated exposure treatments for typically developing individuals. The current study examined the effects of decreasing ISI on outcomes of a graduated exposure treatment during simulated routine dental care for 3 individuals diagnosed with autism. Treatment consisted of graduated exposure and extinction for disruptive behavior. Initially, sessions were conducted once per week. In subsequent conditions, treatment sessions were conducted 3‐5 times per week. A nonconcurrent multiple baseline across subjects design was used to demonstrate experimental control. Results suggest that decreasing ISI durations can produce improved treatment outcomes.