ALPHABET LETTERS AS TOKENS: TRAINING PRESCHOOL CHILDREN IN LETTER RECOGNITION AND LABELLING DURING A TOKEN EXCHANGE PERIOD1

In token economies, we typically consider the instructional opportunities available during the periods of token delivery, but may overlook educational opportunities available at the time of token exchange. The present studies examined the use of labelled tokens and routines in the token exchange period to teach alphabet letter recognition to economically disadvantaged preschool children. The children earned points for a variety of academic behaviors in an early morning classroom setting. At no time were alphabet letters introduced or taught during class. Later, during a midmorning token exchange period, operated according to a department store model, the children were given their points in the form of poker chips inscribed with upper-case alphabet letters. They were required to discriminate among these lettered chips before exchanging them for backup reinforcers sold in four or five stores. To assess alphabet letter knowledge, probe evaluations were periodically conducted in which questions requiring alphabet letter recognition and labelling were asked. The answers to these questions were not reinforced. Alphabet letter training during token exchange periods consisted of having a child display the lettered chips, whereupon a teacher asked a number of recognition-type questions. Wrong answers were corrected, and correct answers praised. The child was allowed to exchange the tokens when the number required for a purchase had been recognized correctly. The periodic probe evaluations revealed consistent increases in correct alphabet letter recognition and, as a byproduct, alphabet labelling was facilitated, even though not explicitly trained. Thus, once the letters were recognized, correct labelling shortly followed. The sequential training of new sets of letters was used to demonstrate experimental control within subjects for two children. A control for exposure to the letters was provided by using the labelled tokens, but requiring the counting of chips rather than letter discrimination in the exchange period for two other children. This procedure produced chance levels of letter recognition, which were subsequently improved when the discrimination procedure was added. Posttraining probes, conducted at one and three weeks after training when the labelled tokens and discrimination routines were no longer in use, revealed the same high levels of recognition and labelling performance found during training. Thus, it appears that labelled tokens may be used to teach discriminations during token exchange periods so long as responses are differentiated on the basis of relevant dimensions of the stimuli.     

Teaching pedestrian safety skills to young children: an analysis and one-year followup

Twenty-four elementary school children in grades K-3 participated in a study to teach six street-crossing skills: (1) wait at curb, (2) look all ways, (3) watch vehicle distance, (4) walk, (5) continue to look, and (6) use crosswalk. The effects of an instructional package implemented on the street corner were evaluated using a multiple-baseline design across two groups of six children at each of two schools. Rapid acquisition of pedestrian skills was evident at both schools. Average skill levels improved from 44% during baseline to 97% after training at School A and from 21% to 86% at School B. Data taken at a second street at each school were used to assess setting generality of safety behaviors. A one-year followup of 14 children indicated that pedestrian safety skills either maintained at high levels or could be quickly recovered from intermediate levels after remedial training. This research represents a first step in the solution of just one of the many community problems involving safety-deficient settings.     

SETTING GENERALITY AND STIMULUS CONTROL IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN1

This study was designed to assess the transfer of treatment gains of autistic children across settings. In the first phase, each of 10 autistic children learned a new behavior in a treatment room and transfer to a novel extra-therapy setting was assessed. Four of the 10 children showed no transfer to the novel setting. Therefore, in the second phase, each child who failed to transfer participated in an analysis of stimulus control in order to determine the variables influencing the deficit in transfer. Each of the four children who did not transfer were selectively responding to an incidental stimulus during the original training in the treatment room. Utilizing a reversal design, each of the four children responded correctly in the extra-therapy setting when the stimulus that was functional during training was identified and introduced into the extra-therapy setting. The extreme selective responding and the resulting bizarre stimulus control found are discussed in relation to the issue of setting generality of treatment gains.     

教学心理学情感维度上的一种教材处理策略——心理匹配

在教学心理学领域中,人们往往习惯于从认知维度探索教材的优化处理策略,缺乏情感维度上的相应研究。奥苏贝尔虽提出意义学习的两个内在先决条件：一是学习者有同化新材料的认知结构;二是学习者有意义学习的心向．但他本人也仅从影响学生认知结构的角度,提出教材的认知处理策略──先行组织者策略．而未从影响学生心向的角度．提出教材的情感处理策略。鉴此,本文从情感维度上提出教材处理的心理匹配策略．以冀与认知策略一起共同优化处理教材、呈现教学内容环节,并阐明心理匹配策略的内涵、机制、作用和种类。     

How controllable is occupational violence?

Occupational violence may be an issue in a number of workplaces, and be of two main sources—those sites where cash is handled, and sites with aggressive clients. Legal requirements make it mandatory for an employer to provide a safe workplace, but just how controllable is occupational violence? A risk management equation is developed to assist the manager to ascertain the level of risk for violence in the workplace.     

THE EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATCH AND CONTENT OVERLAP ON GENERALIZED READING PERFORMANCE

This study examined the effects of instructional match and content overlap on students' ability to generalize from passage reading instruction. Four students with mild disabilities served as participants. Using a multielement design, students were instructed with passages at two levels of text difficulty (instructionally matched vs. instructionally mismatched), and generalization was assessed with passages at two levels of similarity to those instructed (low vs. high content overlap). Results indicated that students' oral reading accuracy and fluency showed the greatest degree of generalization when instructional materials were matched to the students' skill level and assessment materials were similar to those used during instruction. Moreover, these results were maintained at 1-month follow-up. The implications of these findings for classroom reading instruction and the assessment of students' reading skills are discussed.     

MODIFYING HOW PEOPLE SMOKE: INSTRUCTIONAL CONTROL AND GENERALIZATION1

The modification of smoking behavior usually involves the target goal of total abstinence. However, many smokers are unable or unwilling to quit completely. An alternative is to teach people to smoke in ways that minimize the associated health risks. Such an approach would involve decreasing smoking rate, switching to “safer” tobacco products, and modifying the topography of consumption. Previous research has shown that topographical components of smoking behavior such as puff frequency, puff duration, cigarette duration, and amount smoked can be reliably measured and experimentally manipulated (Frederiksen, Miller, and Peterson, Addictive Behaviors, 1977, 2 , 55–61). Further, there is preliminary evidence from a single-subject experiment that topography can be changed in clinically relevant directions and that such changes can generalize to the smoker's natural environment (Frederiksen and Simon, Behavior Therapy, in press). To replicate and extend these findings, three single-subject experiments were conducted. In each experiment, verbal instructions to modify individual components of smoking topography were sequentially introduced using a multiple-baseline design across components. The components of puff frequency and puff duration were modified in three experiments. Cigarette duration was also modified in two experiments. Following the topography change phase, daily smoking rate was stabilized, using a behavioral contracting procedure (Frederiksen, Peterson, and Murphy, Addictive Behaviors, 1976, 1 , 193–196). Generalization was assessed during sessions in which no instructions were given (Subjects 1 and 3) and at six monthly followups (Subjects 2 and 3). For Subjects 2 and 3, data were also available on the amount of carbon monoxide (CO) uptake associated with the consumption of a cigarette (postcigarette CO-precigarette CO). This physiological measure is important because CO and its byproducts constitute a major health risk (Russell, Lancet, 1974, 1 , 254–258). Results showed that instructions were effective in modifying components of smoking topography. These changes generalized to sessions in which no instructions were given and across six months of followup. Daily smoking rate did not increase during topography change nor did smoking topography deteriorate when smoking rate was subsequently stabilized on a behavioral contract. Subjective ratings of smoking enjoyment decreased during topography change for two of three subjects but subsequently returned to baseline levels during followup. The observed topography changes were associated with a decrease in the amount of each cigarette smoked. Mean CO uptake was also reduced from baseline levels of 6.0 ppm and 8.0 ppm (Subjects 2 and 3, respectively) to followup levels of 3.3 ppm and 2.1 ppm. These results replicate and extend previous work and suggest that moderate or “controlled” smoking is an approach that deserves continued attention. The importance of assessing smoking topography and physiological variables, as well as directions for subsequent investigation, are discussed.     

Extinction effects during the assessment of multiple problem behaviors

Extinction effects were evaluated in a multiple baseline across behaviors design with 2 boys after just one of several target problem behaviors was observed during a functional analysis. Other target behaviors emerged as extinction was introduced sequentially across all problem behaviors. Results demonstrated an efficient strategy for simultaneously assessing multiple problem behaviors maintained by the same consequence.     

社会层级的内隐刻板印象：权力与地位的不同作用

采用探测词再认范式,考察社会层级的内隐刻板印象。结果发现,在能力推理上,无论地位高低,个体对高权力推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低权力推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极;在热情推理上,无论权力高低,个体对高地位推理为积极的反应时显著长于消极,对低地位推理为消极的反应时显著长于积极。这表明,权力和地位在热情和能力维度的刻板印象中起着不同的作用,其中权力正向预测能力,地位正向预测热情。     

Optimal Hierarchical Learning Path Design With Reinforcement Learning

E-learning systems are capable of providing more adaptive and efficient learning experiences for learners than traditional classroom settings. A key component of such systems is the learning policy. The learning policy is an algorithm that designs the learning paths or rather it selects learning materials for learners based on information such as the learners’ current progresses and skills, learning material contents. In this article, the authors address the problem of finding the optimal learning policy. To this end, a model for learners’ hierarchical skills in the E-learning system is first developed. Based on the hierarchical skill model and the classical cognitive diagnosis model, a framework to model various mastery levels related to hierarchical skills is further developed. The optimal learning path in consideration of the hierarchical structure of skills is found by applying a model-free reinforcement learning method, which does not require any assumption about learners’ learning transition processes. The effectiveness of the proposed framework is demonstrated via simulation studies.