文章标记量影响文章标记效应的实验研究

探讨文章阅读过程中文章标记量的多少对文章中不同类型的信号保持的影响。结果表明 ,在有标记的目标句上 ,少标记条件显著优于多标记条件和无标记条件 ,多标记条件与无标记条件之间无显著差异 ;在无标记的目标句上 ,无标记条件显著优于多标记条件和少标记条件 ,多标记条件与少标记条件之间无显著差异。这一结果支持在文章阅读过程中读者是微略性地运用文章标记的假设和交易效应的假设。     

DOES USE OF TANGIBLE REWARDS WITH INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN AFFECT PEER OBSERVERS?1

The common assumption that employing tangible rewards with individual children will have adverse effects upon peer observers was studied in the preschool setting. Multiple-subject, multiple-baseline procedures were applied to two classes of children, aged 3.5 to 6 yr. In each group, three consecutive children with low base rates of in-seat behavior received a verbal contingency and food rewards for sitting, while peers (with either low or high rates of in-seat behavior) received neither food nor teacher attention for sitting. Peer reactions measured were in-seat behavior, aggression, nonaggressive disruptive behavior, and complaints. The procedures neither decreased the in-seat behavior of peer observers, nor increased their aggressive or disruptive behavior. On the contrary, peers with low base rates of sitting initially displayed an abrupt, but temporary, increase in sitting. Moreover, although no compensatory attention was delivered, all children exhibited improved sitting by the end of the study. Complaints, which consisted mainly of requests for rewards, decreased in frequency with successive program phases, and within each phase. It is suggested that the class improvement in sitting behavior and the absence of negative effects on observers may be partially due to the high frequency of attention the teacher maintained for other desired behavior and the lack of attention to children's complaints.     

不同认知方式与标记利用意向对文章标记效应的影响

本文探讨读者不同认知方式与标记利用意向对文章标记效应影响的实验。实验以初中二年级学生为被试。结果表明 ,文章标记利用的意向对场独立和场依存被试文章信息的保持都有显著的促进作用 ;文章宏观标记与读者的认知方式有显著的交互作用 ,在有文章宏观标记条件下 ,场独立被试与场依存被试之间无显著差异 ,在无宏观标记条件下 ,场独立被试显著优于场依存被试     

Effects of reinforcement magnitude on spontaneous recovery.

Extinction of operant behavior has been associated with a number of undesirable effects. One such effect is the temporary reappearance of behavior after responding appears to be completely extinguished, known as spontaneous recovery. In this report, the occurrence of spontaneous recovery and its attenuation with large amounts of reinforcement were examined during the treatment of disruption.     

A general model for the analysis of multilevel data

A general model is developed for the analysis of multivariate multilevel data structures. Special cases of the model include repeated measures designs, multiple matrix samples, multilevel latent variable models, multiple time series, and variance and covariance component models.We would like to acknowledge the helpful comments of Ruth Silver. We also wish to thank the referees for helping to clarify the paper. This work was partly carried out with research funds provided by the Economic and Social Research Council (U.K.).     

Confidence in judgments based on incomplete information: An investigation using both hypothetical and real gambles

This study assessed how confidence in judgments is affected by the need to make inferences about missing information. Subjects indicated their likelihood of taking each of a series of gambles based on both probability and payoff information or only one of these sources of information. They also rated their confidence in each likelihood judgment. Subjects in the Explicit Inference condition were asked to explicitly estimate the values of missing information before making their responses while subjects in the Implicit Inference condition were not. The manner in which probability information was framed was also manipulated. Experiment 1 employed hypothetical gambles and Experiment 2 employed gambles with real money. Expressed likelihood of taking gambles was higher when probability was phrased in terms of '% chance of winning' rather than '% chance of losing', but this difference was somewhat less with real gambles than with hypothetical gambles. Confidence ratings in each experiment were actually higher on incomplete information trials than on complete information trials in the Explicit Inference condition. Results were related to the general issue of confidence in judgments.     

Method effects due to social desirability as a parsimonious explanation of the deviation from unidimensionality in LOT-R scores

Dispositional optimism measured by the Life Orientation Test (Revised; LOT-R, Scheier et al., 1994) was originally proposed as a unidimensional construct pertaining to individual differences in positive outcome expectancies. However, factor analytic research has suggested two separate “optimism” and “pessimism” factors associated with positively and negatively worded items respectively. Using confirmatory factor analysis with data from N = 658 students it is shown that a general optimism model with method effects of the positively worded items fits even better than the “optimism–pessimism” model in terms of the AIC statistic, which accounts for both model parsimony and model fit. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain the method effects by social desirability: impression management, one of two components of socially desirable responding, correlates significantly with the method factor whereas the other component, self-deceptive enhancement, is related to the general optimism factor. Thus it is shown that the deviation from unidimensionality of observed scores does not imply deviation from unidimensionality of optimism when method effects are incorporated in the model.     

Prevalence of the extinction burst and its attenuation during treatment

Although extinction has been an effective treatment for a variety of behavior disorders, its use may be associated with several adverse side effects, the most common being an initial increase in the frequency of the target response, called an "extinction burst." We attempted to determine the prevalence of the extinction burst in applied research and its possible attenuation with other operant procedures. An analysis of 113 sets of extinction data indicated that bursting may not be as common as previously assumed (it occurred in 24% of the cases) and may be less likely when extinction is implemented with alternative procedures rather than as the sole intervention (bursting was evident in 12% of the former cases and 36% of the latter).     

Next Steps in Research on Children Exposed to Domestic Violence

The papers in this special issue of Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review provided an overview of what is known about children's exposure to domestic violence, and include indications of gaps in extant research. These gaps and research needs are summarized in this conclusion. Specifically, there is need for further research in several broad areas: definition and measurement of children's exposure to domestic violence; development of research methods and statistical designs that provide detailed information and provide for evidence of intervention effectiveness; impact of domestic violence on parenting and family functioning; the role of child factors and exposure to violence factors in predicting developmental risk and resilience; medical and health consequences of exposure to violence; and the nature of child-system interaction in response to domestic violence. Research needs in these areas are discussed in greater detail, and specific questions are raised for further development.