Humanity or justice?

This paper reflects on a critique of cosmopolitanism mounted by Tom Campbell, who argues that cosmopolitans place undue stress on the issue of global justice. Campbell argues that aid for the impoverished needy in the third world, for example, should be given on the Principle of Humanity rather than on the Principle of Justice. This line of thought is also pursued by ‘Liberal Nationalists’ like Yael Tamir and David Miller. Thomas Nagel makes a similar distinction and questions whether the ideal of justice can even be meaningfully applied on a global scale. The paper explores whether the distinction between the Principle of Humanity and the Principle of Justice might be a false dichotomy in that both principles could be involved in humanitarian assistance. It will suggest that both principles might be grounded in an ethics of caring and that the ethics of caring cannot be so sharply distinguished from the discourse of justice and of rights. As a result, the Principle of Humanity and the Principle of Justice cannot be so sharply distinguished either. It is because we care about others as human beings (Principle of Humanity) that we pursue justice for them (Principle of Justice) and the alleviation of their avoidable suffering.     

Balancing Our Perceptions of the Efficacy of Success-Based Feedback Manipulations on Motor Learning

ABSTRACT. We report two experiments evaluating the impact of success-related feedback on learning of a balance task. In Exp. 1, we studied the influence of lax and conservative outcome feedback, as well as large vs. small improvements in outcome feedback on balance learning. Despite impacts on competency, there were no between-group differences in actual performance or learning. Because no comparative information was provided in Exp. 1, we tested four further groups that either did or did not receive positive or negative comparative feedback (Exp. 2). Although the manipulations influenced competency and arousal, again, there was no impact on balance outcomes. These data cast doubt on the assertions made in the OPTIMAL theory that perceptions of success are moderators of motor learning.     

Motor Learning through Induced Variability at the Task Goal and Execution Redundancy Levels

The authors examined the influence of introducing variability at two different levels in the learning of a striking task. Variability at the task goal level was introduced by changing target location, whereas variability at the execution redundancy level was introduced by using an intermediate target that constrained participants to use different paths from trial to trial to strike the same target. After practice, participants were transferred to 2 test conditions: (a) a fixed-target test, where the position of the target was unchanged; and (b) a variable-target test, where the position of the target was varied from trial to trial. The results from the manipulation at the task goal level were consistent with predictions from the specificity of practice hypothesis. In both the fixed- and variable-target tests, the best performance was achieved by the group that had practiced in the condition matching the test condition. At the execution-redundancy level, practicing multiple solutions to achieve the task goal did not improve performance in either the fixed- or variable-target tests. These results show that introducing variability at the task goal and execution redundancy levels has different effects on learning and generalization and that practice schedules that constrain the participant to use redundant solutions may not facilitate learning.     

A self-determination theory approach to adults’ healthy body weight motivation: A longitudinal study focussing on food choices and recreational physical activity

This study focuses on body weight motivation based on self-determination theory. The impact of body weight motivation on longitudinal changes in food choices, recreational physical activity and body mass index was explored. A sample of adults (N = 2917, 47% men), randomly selected from the telephone book, completed a questionnaire in two consecutive years (2012, 2013), self-reporting food choices, recreational physical activity and body weight motivation. Types of body weight motivation at T1 (autonomous regulation, introjected regulation, and external regulation) were tested with regard to their predictive potential for changes in food choices, recreational physical activity and body mass index (BMI). Autonomous motivation predicted improvements in food choices and long-term adherence to vigorous recreational physical activity in both genders. Introjected motivation predicted long-term adherence to vigorous recreational physical activity only in women. External motivation predicted negative changes in food choices; however, the type of body weight motivation had no impact on BMI in overweight adults in the long term. Autonomous goal-setting regarding body weight seems to be substantial for healthy food choices and adherence to recreational physical activity.     

Experimental test of a planning intervention for forming a ‘higher order’ health-habit

Abstract

Objective: Habit-formation interventions may help individuals initiate and maintain behaviour change. This paper proposes and empirically tests the idea that it is possible for individuals to form ‘higher-order habits’, or behaviours that can be executed in more than one way, and still be habitual.

Design: Participants (N?=?82) were healthy adults randomly assigned to an action-and-coping-planning intervention for forming a ‘higher-order habit’ of filling half of their dinner plates with fruits and vegetables or a control condition. Key measures were collected at baseline and 1, 2 and 3 weeks post-baseline. Participants submitted 3 pictures per week of their dinner plates via snapchat/email.

Main Outcome Measures: Intrinsic motivation, habit strength and behavioural frequency for filling half their dinner plates with fruits and vegetables.

Results: Intervention participants reported significantly greater habit strength at each follow-up time point. Controls did show some degree of habit formation, despite not fully forming a habit. Behavioural automaticity increased despite consuming a variety of fruits/vegetables; results did not depend on participants’ intrinsic motivation to consume fruits/vegetables.

Conclusion: It may be possible for individuals to form ‘higher-order’ habits, which may be particularly important in health contexts, in which many target behaviours are complex and can be seen as higher-order.     

Motivation-focused thinking: Buffering against stress-related physical symptoms and depressive symptomology

Developmental transitions are experienced throughout the life course and necessitate adapting to consequential and unpredictable changes that can undermine health. Our six-month study (n = 239) explored whether selective secondary control striving (motivation-focused thinking) protects against the elevated levels of stress and depressive symptoms increasingly common to young adults navigating the challenging school-to-university transition. Path analyses supplemented with tests of moderated mediation revealed that, for young adults who face challenging obstacles to goal attainment, selective secondary control indirectly reduced long-term stress-related physical and depressive symptoms through selective primary control and previously unexamined measures of discrete emotions. Results advance the existing literature by demonstrating that (a) selective secondary control has health benefits for vulnerable young adults and (b) these benefits are largely a consequence of the process variables proposed in Heckhausen et al.’s (2010) theory.     

Do hospital treatments represent a ‘teachable moment’ for quitting smoking? A study from a stage-theoretical perspective

Hospital treatments are assumed to be a ‘teachable moment’. This phenomenon, however, is only poorly conceptualised and untested. A stage-theoretical perspective implies that a cueing event such as hospital treatments is a teachable moment if a stage progression, change of cognitions, or both occur. This concept is examined in a cross-sectional study by comparing smokers in two treatment settings, an emergency department (ED) and inpatient treatment after elective surgery, with smokers in a control setting. Setting differences were hypothesised in stage distribution, and levels of and stage differences in social-cognitive factors under control for possible confounders. Stage, social-cognitive factors and possible confounders were assessed in 185 ED smokers, 193 inpatient smokers and 290 control smokers. Compared to control smokers, ED and inpatient smokers were in higher stages; they perceived fewer risks and cons; inpatient smokers reported more concrete plans. Stage differences in self-efficacy among ED and inpatient smokers differed from those among control smokers, but the former corresponded more strongly to the theoretical stage assumptions. The results suggest that hospital treatments lead to a stage progression and change of corresponding cognitions, and thus represent a ‘teachable moment’. Stage-matched interventions should be provided but consider differences in cognitions to be effective.     

The influence of body dissatisfaction on cardiovascular and strength-based physical activity by gender: a self-determination theory approach

Abstract

Physical activity—or lack thereof—is one behaviour that may help explain why individuals who are dissatisfied with their bodies experience poor health outcomes. Objective: The purpose of the present study was to examine the mediating role of behavioural regulations (i.e., autonomous and controlled) in the relation between body dissatisfaction and physical activity and to determine whether this mediated relationship was moderated by gender. Additionally, this relation was examined for both cardiovascular and strength-based physical activity. Design: A two-week daily-diary study was conducted. Measures: The Body Shape Satisfaction Questionnaire, the Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire – 3, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire were used to test the main hypotheses. Results: For men and women, body dissatisfaction was related to less frequent cardiovascular and strength-based activity due to lower levels of intrinsic regulation. In women, the relation between body dissatisfaction and activity (cardiovascular and strength-based) was partially mediated by controlled regulations (i.e., external and introjected). That is, women who were dissatisfied exercised more because they were more likely to feel that they had to appease others or themselves. Conclusion: The present study provides direction for targeting physical activity behaviours in college students who are dissatisfied with their bodies.