Quantification of rats' behavior during reinforcement periods

What is treated as a single unit of reinforcement often involves what could be called a reinforcement period during which two or more acts of ingestion may occur, and each of these may have associated with it a series of responses, some reflexive, some learned, that lead up to ingestion. Food-tray presentation to a pigeon is an example of such a “reinforcement period.” In order to quantify this behavior, a continuous-reinforcement schedule was used as the reinforcement period and was chained to a fixed-ratio schedule. Both fixed-ratio size and reinforcement-period duration were manipulated. Rats were used as subjects, food as reinforcement, and a lever press as the operant. Major findings included (a) a rapid decline in response rates during the first 15 to 20 seconds of the reinforcement periods, and (b) a strong positive relationship between these response rates and the size of the fixed ratio. Also revealed was a short scallop not normally found in fixed-ratio response patterns, whose length was a function of fixed-ratio size and reinforcement-period duration. It is suggested that rapidly fluctuating excitatory processes can account for many of these findings and that such processes are functionally significant in terms of behavioral compensation.     

The rank of reduced dispersion matrices

Psychometricians working in factor analysis and econometricians working in regression with measurement error in all variables are both interested in the rank of dispersion matrices under variation of the diagonal elements. Psychometricians concentrate on cases in which low rank can be attained, preferably rank one, the Spearman case. Econometricians cocentrate on cases in which the rank cannot be reduced below the number of variables minus one, the Frisch case. In this paper we give an extensive historial discussion of both fields, we prove the two key results in a more satisfactory and uniform way, we point out various small errors and misunderstandings, and we present a methodological comparison of factor analysis and regression on the basis of our results.Financial support by the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Pure Research (ZWO) is gratefully acknowledged.     

Choice behavior of rats in a concurrent-chains schedule: Amount and delay of reinforcement

Rats were exposed to concurrent-chains schedules in which the terminal links were equal fixed-interval schedules terminating in one or three food pellets. Choice proportions for large reward increased with increases in delay intervals programmed on fixed-interval schedules and supported the predictions derived from a general choice model originally formulated by Fantino and later developed by Navarick and Fantino. In addition, a functional equivalence of two alternatives was established by increasing delay intervals with large reward, whereas delay intervals for small reward were held constant. Functionally equivalent delay intervals with large reward, for each delay interval with small reward, can be described by a power function with exponent smaller than 1.0. A better prediction of choice proportions resulted when this function was used to derive predicted choice proportions.     

Effects of relational uncertainty in heightening national identification and reactive approach motivation of Japanese

This study investigated whether relational uncertainty poses uncertainty threat, which causes compensatory behaviours among Japanese. We hypothesised that Japanese, as collectivists, would perceive relational uncertainty to pose uncertainty threat. In two experiments, we manipulated relational uncertainty, and confirmed that participants exhibited compensatory reactions to reduce aversive feelings due to it. In Study 1, we conducted direct comparison between relational uncertainty, independent self‐uncertainty and control conditions. The results revealed that participants who were instructed to imagine events pertaining to relational uncertainty heightened national identification as compensation than did participants in the control condition, but independent self‐uncertainty did not provoke such effects. In Study 2, we again manipulated relational uncertainty; however, we also manipulated participants' individualism‐collectivism cultural orientation through priming, and the analyses yielded a significant interaction effect between these variables. Relational uncertainty evoked reactive approach motivation, a cause for compensatory behaviours, among participants primed with collectivism, but not for individualism. It was concluded that the effect of uncertainty on compensatory behaviour is influenced by cultural priming, and that relational uncertainty is important to Japanese.     

Developing the Functional Assertiveness Scale: Measuring Dimensions of Objective Effectiveness and Pragmatic Politeness

The purpose of the present study was to develop a measure for functional assertiveness, the Functional Assertiveness Scale (FAS). Functional assertiveness is a new concept of assertiveness that represents a method of appropriate self‐expression. Functional assertiveness is defined as interpersonal communication that occurs when a speaker encounters interpersonal problems that should be resolved or has objectives that should be achieved, and the speaker's message is perceived as appropriate by the listener (Mitamura & Tanaka‐Matsumi, 2010, 2010c). Five studies were conducted in order to develop the FAS. In Study 1, we generated an item pool for FAS, and in Study 2 we developed the FAS prototype using this item pool. Study 3 examined the factorial validity, concurrent validity, and internal consistency of the FAS. Study 4 examined test–retest reliability of the FAS. Study 5 examined responsiveness on the FAS. The validity and reliability of the FAS and potential utility and clinical implication of the FAS are discussed.     

Effects of computer‐based training on procedural modifications to standard functional analyses

Few studies have evaluated methods for training decision‐making when functional analysis data are undifferentiated. The current study evaluated computer‐based training to teach 20 graduate students to arrange functional analysis conditions, analyze functional analysis data, and implement procedural modifications. Participants were exposed to training materials using interactive software during a 1‐day session. Following the training, mean scores on the posttest, novel cases probe, and maintenance probe increased for all participants. These results replicate previous findings during a 1‐day session and include a measure of participant acceptability of the training. Recommendations for future research on computer‐based training and functional analysis are discussed.     

On the predictive validity of behavioral momentum theory for mitigating resurgence of problem behavior

We summarize the results of four recent translational studies from our lab that used the predictions of behavioral momentum theory to inform the development of more durable treatments for destructive behavior. Treatments informed by behavioral momentum theory generally showed better suppression of target responding during an extinction challenge than did a comparison treatment. We reanalyze data from each of the four studies to show that this general finding is apparent both at the aggregate (i.e., proportion of baseline response rates averaged across participants) and within participant (i.e., percentage reduction in proportion of baseline response rates, difference in raw response rates during the extinction challenge). Interestingly, participants who experienced multiple cycles of the extinction challenge generally showed less differentiation in target responding between the treatment informed by behavioral momentum theory and the comparison treatment. Overall results suggest that applications of behavioral momentum theory can substantially improve the durability of common treatments for destructive behavior.     

Sound attenuation and preferred music in the treatment of problem behavior maintained by escape from noise

We examined the extent to which different sounds functioned as motivating operations (MO) that evoked problem behavior during a functional analysis for two participants. Results suggested that escape from loud noises reinforced the problem behavior for one participant and escape from arguing reinforced problem behavior for the other participant. Noncontingent delivery of preferred music through sound‐attenuating headphones decreased problem behavior without the use of extinction for both participants. We discuss the results in terms of the abolishing effects of the intervention.     

Risk compensation theory and bicycle helmets – Results from an experiment of cycling speed and short-term effects of habituation

It has been suggested that the safety benefits of bicycle helmets are limited by risk compensation. The current study contributes to explaining whether the potential safety effects of bicycle helmets are reduced by cyclists’ tendency to cycle faster when wearing them (as a result of risk compensation), and if this potential reduction can be associated with a change in perceived risk. A previous study (Fyhri & Phillips, 2013) showed that non-routine helmet users did not increase their speed immediately after being given a helmet to wear, while routine helmet users cycled more slowly. The current study tests whether the previously found reduction in speed in response to helmet removal – as an indirect indicator of risk compensation – could be established in non-routine helmet users, after a period of habituation while cycling with a helmet.We did this by conducting a randomized crossover trial, in which we used GPS-derived speed calculations and self-reported risk perception. To test the effect of habituation, we used a design where each participant took part in two rounds with a break between and each round having two trips. We collected the data in June 2015. Non-routine helmet users (N = 31) were recruited in the field (along cycle routes in Oslo), and through a sample drawn from the Falck National register of bicycle owners. In the first phase of the study, all participants were asked to complete a test route (2.4 km downhill) with and without a helmet. In the second phase of the experiment, conducted after 1.5–2 h, the same participants again completed the test route with and without a helmet. In the time between the first and second phases of the experiment, all participants were given helmets, and told to use them on a predefined bicycle route.Habituation to the helmet between the first and second phases of the experiment did not produce any decrease (with helmet removal) in speed, on top of the habituation that occurred while cycling down the hill (the order effect). Mean speed difference for cycling with/without a helmet before the break was −0.76 km/h, after the break this difference was 0.32 km/h; 95% CIs [−0.5, 2.9] and [−0.9, 1.5]. We argue that risk compensation is an unlikely effect of using a bicycle helmet, and probably cannot explain any adverse effects related to helmet legislation.