Means or outcomes? Goal orientation predicts process and outcome focus

Previous research has demonstrated that the representation of goals primarily in terms of means (process focus) compared to outcomes of goal pursuit (outcome focus) increases across the lifespan. Nothing is known, however, about the processes underlying this age-related difference. The current study investigates age-related differences in growth and maintenance orientation as one of the factors contributing to age-related differences in goal focus. A self-report study (N = 123, 18 to 82 years, M = 48.59) presents first evidence that process focus is predicted by maintenance goal orientation, whereas outcome focus is predicted by growth goal orientation. Moreover, maintenance goal orientation mediates the positive association of age and process focus. Results are discussed taking a functional perspective of the role of goal orientation in age-related differences in goal focus.     

In- and out-of-school peer groups of immigrant youths

Multiethnic societies typically aim to have immigrant and native youths mix and be friends, preferably in all contexts in which they spend time. Schools and neighbourhoods are the two settings where youths spend the most time with peers during adolescence. The present study explored the in- and out-of-school peer groups of 174 immigrant junior high school pupils (Mean age = 14.39) who attended an integrated school but lived in a segregated neighbourhood. A person-oriented approach was used and cluster analyses were conducted both within and across the two settings. The results show that youths mostly have the same kind of friendship formations in both settings, regardless of the ethnic composition of each setting. In terms of adaptation, the results consistently show that for boys, having only immigrant friends is related to problematic adaptation in both settings. No relationship between peer formations and adaptation was found for girls. The study highlights the importance of considering gender and viewing youths as embedded in systems of multiple settings, in order to achieve true integration.     

Happy-productive groups: How positive affect links to performance through social resources

Abstract

The current study extends the Broaden & Build theory to the collective (i.e. groups) level of analysis, focusing on the mediating role of group social resources (i.e. cohesion, coordination, teamwork, supportive team climate) between group positive affect (i.e. enthusiasm, optimism, satisfaction, comfort) and group performance (i.e. in-and extra-role performance, creative performance). To test our hypotheses, we conducted two studies using independent samples. Study 1 is a laboratory study with 449 participants nested in 112 small groups who performed an organizational simulation creative task. Study 2 is a field study that aggregated scores of 2159 employees nested in 417 groups. In both the lab and field studies, structural equation modeling results revealed that group social resources fully mediate the relationship between group positive emotions and performance.     

Nonblurred regions show priority for gaze direction over spatial blur

The human eye continuously forms images of our 3D environment using a finite and dynamically changing depth of focus. Since different objects in our environment reside at different depth planes, the resulting retinal images consist of both focused and spatially blurred objects concurrently. Here, we wanted to measure what effect such a mixed visual diet may have on the pattern of eye movements. For that, we have constructed composite stimuli, each containing an intact photograph and several progressively blurred versions of it, all arranged in a 3?×?3 square array and presented simultaneously as a single image. We have measured eye movements for 7 such composite stimuli as well as for their corresponding root mean square (RMS) contrast-equated versions to control for any potential contrast variations as a result of the blurring. We have found that when observers are presented with such arrays of blurred and nonblurred images they fixate significantly more frequently on the stimulus regions that had little or no blur at all (p?<?.001). A similar pattern of fixations was found for the RMS contrast-equated versions of the stimuli indicating that the observed distributions of fixations is not simply the result of variations in image contrasts due to spatial blurring. Further analysis revealed that, during each 5 second presentation, the image regions containing little or no spatial blur were fixated first while other regions with larger amounts of blur were fixated later, if fixated at all. The results contribute to the increasing list of stimulus parameters that affect patterns of eye movements during scene perception.     

维果茨基心理学理论述评

维果茨基是苏联早期一位才华横溢的杰出心理学家,社会文化历史学派的创始人。近年来国际上出现的维果茨基研究热,充分显示了维果茨基心理学思想对现代心理科学的重要的现实意义。维果茨基的心理学理论异常丰富,主要包括活动理论、工具理论、思维和言语理论、教学和发展理论、心理学方法论等。维果茨基心理学理论是对意识的文化历史决定的研究的重要贡献,其理论不足之处主要带有抽象社会观点的色彩等。     

Collective Guilt and Collective Guilt Feelings

Can collectives feel guilt with respect to what they have done? It hasbeen claimed that they cannot. Yet in everyday discourse collectives areoften held to feel guilt, criticized because they do not, and so on.Among other things, this paper considers what such so-called collectiveguilt feelings amount to. If collective guilt feelings are sometimesappropriate, it must be the case that collectives can indeed beguilty. The paper begins with an account of what it is for a collectiveto intend to do something and to act in light of that intention.According to this account, and in senses that are explained, there is acollective that intends to do something if and only if the members of agiven population are jointly committed to intend as a body to do thatthing. A related account of collective belief is also presented. It isthen argued that, depending on the circumstances, a group's action canbe free as opposed to coerced, and that the idea that a collective assuch can be guilty of performing a wrongful act makes sense. The ideathat a group might feel guilt may be rejected because it is assumed thatto feel guilt is to experience a ``pang'' or ``twinge'' of guilt –nothing more and nothing less. Presumably, though, there must becognitions and perhaps behavior involved. In addition, the primacy, eventhe necessity, of ``feeling-sensations'' to feeling guilt in theindividual case has been questioned. Without the presumption that it isalready clear what feeling guilt amounts to, three proposals as to thenature of collective guilt feelings are considered. A ``feeling ofpersonal guilt'' is defined as a feeling of guilt over one's own action.It is argued that it is implausible to construe collective guiltfeelings in terms of members' feelings of personal guilt. ``Membershipguilt feelings'' involve a group member's feeling of guilt over what hisor her group has done. It is argued that such feelings are intelligibleif the member is party to the joint commitment that lies at the base ofthe relevant collective intention and action. However, an account ofcollective guilt in terms of membership guilt feelings is found wanting.Finally, a ``plural subject'' account of collective guilt feelings isarticulated, such that they involve a joint commitment to feel guilt asa body. The parties to a joint commitment of the kind in question may asa result find themselves experiencing ``pangs'' of the kind associatedwith personal and membership guilt feelings. Since these pangs, byhypothesis, arise as a result of the joint commitment to feel guilt as abody, they might be thought of as providing a kind of phenomenology forcollective guilt. Be that as it may, it is argued the plural subjectaccount has much to be said for it.     

Expanding the traditional user versus non‐user dichotomy amongst ecstasy users

Differences in the drug use characteristics and psychosocial variables in the use and non‐use of ecstasy within 845 16–25 year‐olds in the UK was examined. Based on levels of ecstasy use and intentions, two groups of non‐users (resistant and vulnerable), three groups of users (light, moderate and heavy) and an ex‐user group were identified. It was found that there is predictive utility in this way of expanding the widely employed ‘user versus non‐user’ dichotomy. Resistant non‐users were more likely to be younger, female, and were characterized by lower levels of use of four other drugs (amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine and LSD). Those ‘at risk’ of using ecstasy reported more frequent use of amphetamine, LSD, and cannabis than resistant non‐users. Heavy user groups reported using amphetamine, cocaine and LSD more frequently than all the other groups. Having ecstasy using friends increased the odds of being an ‘at risk’ non‐user or an ecstasy user. Normative influence also differentiated between the three user groups (light, moderate, and heavy). Beliefs about ecstasy use being immoral, ecstasy offers being difficult to resist, ecstasy use making one feel guilty and ecstasy being readily available differentiated between user and non‐user groups. These factors could usefully inform the content of health education materials designed to change ecstasy use. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Creative Occupational Therapist: It's About the Client Using Focus Groups to Explore Creativity in Occupational Therapy

Although creativity is an important aspect of occupational therapy theory and practice, there have been few studies that would explore this concept in the context of the occupational therapy process. This was the first qualitative study of creativity in occupational therapy in Slovenia. It was conducted as part of a larger mixed-methods study and included 22 experienced occupational therapists who participated in four focus groups. The focus of the study was on the exploration of different factors that could contribute to creativity and creative strategies in occupational therapy, in either a positive or a negative way. Since occupational therapy promotes a client-centered therapy approach, the role of the client as the motivating factor was of particular interest to our study. Six factors that can influence the creativity of occupational therapists emerged from the qualitative analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). While the client was identified as the key factor, the potential of other factors was also recognized. This qualitative study increased the understanding of the concept of creativity and creative behavior in occupational therapy, and also provided empirical material that formed the basis for the development of a questionnaire on creativity in occupational therapy.     

Noise,Economy, and the Emergence of Information Structure in a Laboratory Language

The acceptability of sentences in natural language is constrained not only grammaticality, but also by the relationship between what is being conveyed and such factors as context and the beliefs of interlocutors. In many languages the critical element in a sentence (its focus) must be given grammatical prominence. There are different accounts of the nature of focus marking. Some researchers treat it as the grammatical realization of a potentially arbitrary feature of universal grammar and do not provide an explicit account of its origins; others have argued, however, that focus marking is a (grammaticalized) functional solution to the problem of efficiently transmitting information via a noisy channel. By adding redundancy to highlight critical elements in particular, focus protects key parts of the message from noise. If this information‐theoretic account is true, then we should expect focus‐like behavior to emerge even in non‐linguistic communication systems given sufficient noise and pressures for efficiency. We tested this in an experiment in which participants played a simple communication game in which they had to click cells on a grid to communicate one of two line figures drawn across the grid. We manipulated the noise, available time, and required effort, and measured patterns of redundancy. Because the lines in many cases overlapped, meaning that only some parts of each line could be used to distinguish it from the other, we were able to compare the extent to which effort was expended on adding redundancy to critical (non‐overlapping) and non‐critical (overlapping) parts of the message. The results supported the information‐theoretic account of focus and shed light on the emergence of information structure in language.     

Approaching the true self: Promotion focus predicts the experience of authenticity

Research on subjective authenticity identifies several psychological antecedents that seem naturally tied to subjectively authentic experiences. Four studies (N = 525) tested the hypothesis that promotion focus (compared to prevention focus) represents another shared antecedent of subjective authenticity. Studies 1 and 2 examined correlations between regulatory focus and subjective authenticity in the context of goal-pursuit and interpersonal interactions. Studies 3 and 4 were within-subjects experiments designed to manipulate regulatory focus and examine the effects of promotion and prevention focus on subjective authenticity. Across all studies, we found that promotion focus (relative to prevention focus) was a robust predictor of subjective authenticity. Implications and future directions are discussed.