Distinguishing Caregiver Strain from Psychological Distress: Modeling the Relationships Among Child, Family, and Caregiver Variables

Although both have been used in studies of the impact of mental illness on the family, the constructs of caregiver strain (often referred to as burden of care) and psychological distress have not been clearly distinguished. The vagueness surrounding these constructs, and the lack of a cohesive conceptual framework for understanding how they relate, leads to contradictory interpretations of results. This compromises the building of the knowledge base needed to develop and evaluate interventions to support families as they struggle to meet the needs of their children with emotional and behavioral challenges. We utilized the ABCX Model as a framework for understanding caregiver strain and its relationship to psychological distress. Structural equations modeling was used to test the hypothesized relationship between caregiver strain and psychological distress, as well as the role of key child and family variables. These included child symptoms, stressful life events, social support, family functioning, and material resources. Our findings indicated that caregiver strain and psychological distress, although related, have distinct correlates and different implications in the family context.     

The Influence of Intelligence and Personality Traits upon False Beliefs

Abstract

Leonard Bloomfield. Language. New York: Holt, 1933 Pp. ix+564. $3.00. Reviewed by Raymond Royce Willoughby.     

New experimental test of strain-gradient plasticity theory: metal foil sandwich structures in flexure

Experimental tests of strain-gradient plasticity theory rely on studies of the size effect (smaller is stronger) in micromechanical testing. The plastic strain gradient is varied by varying the size of the specimen. This confounds the direct effects of the size and the effects of the strain gradient. We propose experiments on foil sandwich structures in which these parameters are separated. Preliminary results suggest that it is the foil thickness that determines the strength, not the strain gradient.     

Financial strain,social capital,and perceived health during economic recession: a longitudinal survey in rural Canada

Although the health consequences of financial strain are well documented, less is understood about the health-protective role of social capital. Social capital refers to a sense of community embeddedness, which is in part reflected by group membership, civic participation, and perceptions of trust, cohesion, and engagement. We investigated whether perceptions of social capital moderate the relation between financial strain and health, both mental and physical. This longitudinal study surveyed adults in two communities in rural Ontario where significant job losses recently occurred. Data were collected on financial strain, social capital, perceived stress, symptoms of anxiety and depression, and physical health on three occasions over 18 months (N's = 355, 317, and 300). As expected, financial strain positively related to perceived stress, poor physical health and symptoms of anxiety and depression, whereas social capital related to less stress, better physical health, and fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression. Effects of financial strain on perceived stress and depressive symptoms were moderated by social capital such that financial strain related more closely to perceived stress and depressive symptoms when social capital was lower. The findings underscore the health-protective role of community associations among adults during difficult economic times.     

Social influence on predictions of simulated stock prices

Herding in financial markets refers to that investors are influenced by others. This study addresses the importance of consistency for herding. It is suggested that, in financial markets perceptions of consistency are based on repeated observations over time. Consistency may then be perceived as the agreement across time between investors' predictions. In addition, consistency may be related to variance over time in each investor's predictions. In an experiment using a Multiple Cue Probability Learning paradigm, 96 undergraduates made multi‐trial predictions of future stock prices given information about the current price and the predictions made by five fictitious others. Consistency was varied between the others' predictions (correlation) and within the others' predictions (variance). The results showed that the predictions were significantly influenced by the others' predictions when these were correlated. No effect of variance was observed. Hence, participants were influenced by the others when they were in agreement, regardless of whether they varied their predictions over trials or not. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The linear system theory's account of behavior maintained by variable-ratio schedules.

The mathematical theory of linear systems, which has been used successfully to describe behavior maintained by variable-interval schedules, is extended to describe behavior maintained by variable-ratio schedules. The result of the analysis is a pair of equations, one of which expresses response rate on a variable-ratio schedule as a function of the mean ratio requirement (n) that the schedule arranges. The other equation expresses response rate on a variable-ratio schedule as a function of reinforcement rate. Both equations accurately describe existing data from variable-ratio schedules. The theory accounts for two additional characteristics of behavior maintained by variable-ratio schedules; namely, the appearance of strained, two-valued (i.e., zero or very rapid) responding at large ns, and the abrupt cessation of responding at a boundary n. The theory also accounts for differences between behavior on variable-interval and variable-ratio schedules, including (a) the occurrence of strained responding on variable-ratio but not on variable-interval schedules, (b) the abrupt cessation of responding on occurrence of higher response rates on variable-ratio than on variable-interval schedules. Furthermore, given data from a series of variable-interval schedules and from a series of concurrent variable-ratio variable-interval schedules, the theory permits quantitative prediction of many properties of behavior on single-alternative variable-ratio schedules. The linear system theory's combined account of behavior on variable-interval and variable-ratio schedules is superior to existing versions of six other mathematical theories of variable-interval and variable-ratio responding.     

Behavioral consequences of agonistic experiences in the male S3 (Tryon Maze Dull) rat

Aggression occurring during an initial confrontation between two rats may result in significant behavioral changes in one or both animals. The present experiment was designed to study behavioral changes occurring in the course of an agonistic interaction and the consequences of winning or losing. In order to ensure winning, male CPB-S3 Tryon Maze Dull) rats were confronted with males of a more aggressive strain (Long Evans); and to ensure losing they were confronted with those of a less aggressive strain Wistar). Winners were tested against losers, this test being repeated after an interval of 17 days. Winners and losers were also tested with naive S3 opponents. Possible effects of winning and losing in nonagonistic behavioral tests were then examined. These measured open field activity, passive avoidance learning, and masculine sexual behavior. The results replicate and extend earlier findings using a different strain, indicating that significant and relatively permanent behavioral changes are induced in male winners and losers. Behavioral change is most prominent in the losers. Despite the behavioral differences between winners and losers in tests for agonistic behavior, no consistent differences were noted in any of the other behavioral tests.     

中国社会医疗保险财务收支中的障碍与突破

财务收支是社会医疗保险制度运行的物质基础。近年来,财务收支失衡问题已经开始显现于我国社会医疗保险的部分统筹地区。其原因主要有责任主体、人口结构、财务机制、医疗递送等因素。为此,应该在走向全民医疗保险制度、加强医患双方的道德风险规避、扩展个人医疗账户的使用范围、适时建立退休人员的缴费制度等方面进行改革与发展。     

Parental employment status and adolescents’ health: The role of financial situation,parent-adolescent relationship and adolescents’ resilience

The paper deals with parental employment status and its relationship to adolescents’ self-reported health. It studies the role of the financial situation, parent–adolescent relationship and adolescent resilience in the relationship between parental employment status and adolescents’ self-rated health, vitality and mental health. Multiple regression analyses were used to analyse questionnaire data obtained from 2799 adolescents (mean age 14.3) in 2006. The results show a negative association of the father’s, but not mother’s unemployment or non-employment with adolescents’ health. Regression analyses showed that neither financial strain nor a poor parent–adolescent relationship or a low score in resilience accounted for the relationship between the father’s unemployment or non-employment and poorer adolescent health. Furthermore, resilience did not work as a buffer against the negative impact of fathers’ unemployment on adolescents’ health.     

An exploration of attitudes toward the use of patient incentives to support diabetes self-management

Objective: To improve our understanding of the potential of incentives to enhance diabetes self-management (type 1 and type 2) and to integrate incentives into a conceptual model of diabetes self-management over time.

Design: A qualitative analysis of in-depth individual interviews with 12 patients and 9 providers.

Main outcome measures: Influence of time on patients’ needs for diabetes self-management technologies and on the use of incentives to drive behavioural changes.

Results: Ten of the 12 participants with diabetes (83%) were interested in using financial incentives to improve their diabetes self-management. We found that incentives can play two key roles in diabetes self-management: guide the learning phase during the creation of habits; and serve as an acknowledgement of efforts made in the stable phase, when providers typically only focus on the patients’ failures at self-management.

Conclusion: Patients seem receptive to the idea of financial incentives, which have the potential to support diabetes self-management through either small monetary amounts or tangible rewards. Incentives hold promise for supporting behaviour changes, especially in early stages of diabetes, but they require careful planning to avoid the undesired consequence of decreased intrinsic motivation.