What Am I Looking at? Interpreting Dynamic and Static Gaze Displays

Displays of eye movements may convey information about cognitive processes but require interpretation. We investigated whether participants were able to interpret displays of their own or others' eye movements. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants observed an image under three different viewing instructions. Then they were shown static or dynamic gaze displays and had to judge whether it was their own or someone else's eye movements and what instruction was reflected. Participants were capable of recognizing the instruction reflected in their own and someone else's gaze display. Instruction recognition was better for dynamic displays, and only this condition yielded above chance performance in recognizing the display as one's own or another person's (Experiments 1 and 2). Experiment 3 revealed that order information in the gaze displays facilitated instruction recognition when transitions between fixated regions distinguish one viewing instruction from another. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Distinguishing the Ratio Bias from Unsystematic Error: Situation and Individual‐difference Effects

People often perceive the occurrence of events to be less likely when the likelihood of the event is expressed in ratios consisting of smaller numbers versus larger numbers, an effect known as the ratio bias. This work presents a theoretical framework for the conditions that need to be met for the ratio bias to occur. In doing so, we contrast effects on the ratio bias to those on unsystematic error, which have often been confounded in previous research. We find that the ratio bias is weaker (1) when both sets of numbers are relatively large than when both sets of numbers are relatively small; (2) for scenarios involving lottery tickets than for scenarios involving drawing balls from a bin; and (3) when a physical display depicting the numbers is provided to participants. Each of these factors reduced the ratio bias without reducing unsystematic error. Additionally, we show that unsystematic error is lower among people who (1) reason on the basis of proportions rather than on the basis of the numerator and denominator individually; (2) score higher on the rational scale of the Rational–Experiential Inventory; and (3) are of higher numeracy. We use these results to distinguish causes of error generally from those on the ratio bias specifically and discuss the implications for our understanding of when the ratio bias occurs. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The understanding and self-reported use of emotional display rules in children with autism spectrum disorders

Two studies examined the understanding and self-reported use of rules for the expressive display of emotions in children with high functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASD) and in typically developing children. In Study 1, children from the two groups reported display rules equally often when presented with hypothetical situations that provided clear motives for using display rules, although emotion-masking displays were more commonly identified for vignettes with prosocial rather than self-protective motives. In Study 2, children were interviewed about display rule use in real life. Children with HFASD reported display rules less often, included more prototypical examples, and referred less often to prosocial motives than typically developing children. Children with HFASD appear to be aware of display rules, but are less adept at identifying the interpersonal functions of such rules than their typically developing peers.     

Is a change in work motivation related to a change in mental well-being?

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of changes on work motivation and the effect of the changes on future mental well-being. This prospective study comprised 577 employees who were followed up 18 months after a comprehensive baseline measurement. The response rate was 81% for the baseline and 72% for the follow-up. The results show that both negative and positive changes in work motivation over time (18 months) were related to exhaustion. A similar correlation was found between negative changes in work motivation and depression. The results show that employees with a decreased level of work motivation had a higher risk of experiencing more exhaustion and depression in the future. Thus, investing in activities to promote work motivation may be an effective means of preventing long-term sick leave for stress-related mental illness and of providing energy for successful career advancement.     

New insights on eye blindness and hand sight: Temporal constraints of visuo-motor networks

Pioneer experiments on saccadic suppression have shown that this effect is not followed by motor disorientation: Conscious perception of a target displacement can be dissociated from correct manual target reaching. It has subsequently been demonstrated that movement corrections with the same latency and spatial characteristics can be produced in conditions allowing perceptual awareness of perturbation of a target as in condition inducing saccadic suppression. In addition to the qualitative dissociation between motor performance and conscious awareness, quantitative temporal dissociations in action can be observed by manipulating different features of the visual target. When the target of an ongoing simple action is perturbed, a temporal advantage is found for responses to perturbations of location relative to colour and shape. Furthermore, there seems to be a temporal advantage for automatic motor corrections made in response to a target displacement as compared to other responses (other ongoing movement adjustments, movement interruption, conditional motor response such as pressing a key, verbal response, delayed matching-to-sample tasks). Thus, this paper reviews evidence for the fact that the temporal characteristics of any given response to a stimulus are dependent both on the sensory processes and on the type of response generated. Accordingly, identification responses (such as verbal report) to a visual stimulus are much slower than motor corrections of an ongoing movement in response to a target location change because of different processing times of the stimulus features (“What” compared to “Where”) and of the response itself (“What” compared to “How”). The existence of two continua (What/Where and What/How) is proposed between these two extreme stimulus- response combinations. This model may be a useful framework to better understand visuo-motor transformations and the network of connections between visual and motor areas.     

A study of the dynamics of sex differences in adulthood

Studies of gender differences using primarily young individuals show that males, on average, perform better than females in physical activities but worse than females on tests of verbal abilities. There is however a controversy about the existence of these sex differences in adulthood. Our study used 1271 participants from four cultural backgrounds (Chinese, multi‐generation Canadians, Indu‐Canadians, and European‐Canadians) divided in five age groups. We measured sex differences in the time required for participants to complete a lexical task experiment, and also assessed their verbal tempo and physical endurance using a validated temperament test (Structure of Temperament Questionnaire). We found a significant female advantage in time on the lexical task and on the temperament scale of social–verbal tempo, and a male advantage on the temperament scale of physical endurance. These sex differences, however, were more pronounced in young age groups (17–24), fading in older groups. This “middle age–middle sex” phenomenon suggests that sex differences in these two types of abilities observed in younger groups might be “a matter of age,” and should not be attributed to gender in general. A one‐dimensional approach to sex differences (common in meta‐analytic studies) therefore overlooks a possible interaction of sex differences with age.     

Traumatic Attachments and Self-Harm Behaviors

Abstract

Work and the structure it affords is one of the most important vehicles for the expression of worth in our society. With so much invested in the external world of position and achievement, threats to job security pose fundamental challenges to individual identity. Recent upheavals in the workplacedownsizings, early retirements, and corporate reorganizationshave shaken the psychological equilibrium of many of our clients, giving rise to feelings of despair and hopelessness. When disruptive and unwanted changes occur later in life, they become additionally tinged with latent concerns about aging and finding meaning as a mature adult.     

情绪劳动的效应、影响因素及作用机制

情绪劳动是指员工遵照一定的组织规则, 在工作场所与顾客互动过程中进行的情绪调节。研究证明情绪劳动对组织情境中一系列结果变量影响显著, 既有积极影响也有消极影响, 作用对象包括施动者员工、受动者顾客和规则制定者组织。情绪劳动与结果变量的关系受多个员工、工作和顾客特征变量的影响。资源保存理论为情绪劳动的作用机制提供了一种有力的解释。即时、短期与长期效应的整合、指向内部顾客的情绪劳动以及组织氛围的影响是未来研究值得关注的方向。     

Vicarious traumatisation experiences among South African Police Service members in a rural setting: An exploratory study

The objective of this study was to explore the vicarious traumatisation experiences of South African Police Service members serving in a rural community. The participants consisted of 17 purposively selected police members (females = 4; age range 27 to 55; average years of police service = 10.6 years). Unstructured face-to-face interviews were conducted on the members’ experiences with trauma events where they were called upon to provide police services. Additionally, field notes, telephone follow-ups, and diaries were used to collect data from the members. The data were analysed using interpretative phenomenological approach guidelines. Findings show the police members to report their outlook on life to change from viewing work-life as routine and impersonal, to viewing it as involved and personal. The police members also reported psychological disorientation and being in a sense of stupor from exposure to traumatic cases. Finally, the police members self-reported empathetic experiences with the survivors as concerned citizen parents.