Testing two variances for superiority/non-inferiority and equivalence: Using the exhaustion algorithm for sample size allocation with cost

The equality of two group variances is frequently tested in experiments. However, criticisms of null hypothesis statistical testing on means have recently arisen and there is interest in other types of statistical tests of hypotheses, such as superiority/non-inferiority and equivalence. Although these tests have become more common in psychology and social sciences, the corresponding sample size estimation for these tests is rarely discussed, especially when the sampling unit costs are unequal or group sizes are unequal for two groups. Thus, for finding optimal sample size, the present study derived an initial allocation by approximating the percentiles of an F distribution with the percentiles of the standard normal distribution and used the exhaustion algorithm to select the best combination of group sizes, thereby ensuring the resulting power reaches the designated level and is maximal with a minimal total cost. In this manner, optimization of sample size planning is achieved. The proposed sample size determination has a wide range of applications and is efficient in terms of Type I errors and statistical power in simulations. Finally, an illustrative example from a report by the Health Survey for England, 1995–1997, is presented using hypertension data. For ease of application, four R Shiny apps are provided and benchmarks for setting equivalence margins are suggested.     

Exploring Processes in Day-to-Day Parent–Adolescent Conflict and Angry Mood: Evidence for Circular Causality

Parent–adolescent conflict has been studied both as a precursor of long-term macrolevel developmental risks and as an outcome of microlevel, moment-to-moment interaction patterns. However, the family-level processes underlying the maintenance or regulation of conflict in daily life are largely overlooked. A meso-level understanding of parent–adolescent conflict offers important practical insights that have direct implications for interventions. The present study explores day-to-day reciprocal processes and carryover in parents’ and adolescents’ experiences of anger and conflict. Daily diary data provided by parent–adolescent dyads (N = 151) from two-caregiver households (adolescents: 61.59% female, mean age = 14.60 years) over 21 days were examined using a multivariate Poisson multilevel model to evaluate the circular causality principle in parents’ and adolescents’ daily conflict and anger. Findings offer empirical support for the theory, suggesting that parents’ and adolescents’ anger and conflict exist together in a feedback loop wherein conflict is both a consequence of past anger and also an antecedent of future anger, both within and across persons. Increased understanding of the daily interaction patterns and maintenance of parent–adolescent conflict can guide more informed, targeted, and well-timed interventions intended to ameliorate the consequences of problematic parent–adolescent conflict sequences.     

Stress and subjective life expectancy: Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations in early adolescence

Using data from a longitudinal study, the present study employed a latent class mover-stayer analytical strategy to examine both the cross-sectional and longitudinal (+33 months) relationship between membership of stress classes, and subjective life expectancy. Participants were from 21 High schools in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Data were collected in the first year of High school (mean age = 12.5 years), and at +33 months (fourth year, or school year 11). Sample 1 consisted of 1171 adolescents (40.82% females, 2.56% unreported) in Northern Ireland. Sample 2 consisted of 1059 adolescents (52.79% females, 1.32% unreported) in Scotland. Adolescents with the lowest levels of stress projected the highest subjective life expectancy scores. Longitudinal analyses were jumbled and not in keeping with cross-sectional results. More research may be needed on the trajectory of subjective life expectancy over time before it can be depended upon as a reliable outcome variable in adolescent development.     

Crafting Mosaics: Person-Centered Religious Influence and Selection in Adolescent Friendships

This research addresses the intersection of two key domains of adolescents’ lives: religion and peer networks. Religion scholars argue that religion is multi-faceted and better understood by focusing on combinations of indicators (i.e., mosaics), versus a variable-centered approach. We adopt this framework and investigate the interplay between religion and peer networks, both in how religious mosaics are shaped by friends and how religious profiles affect friend selection dynamics. With data from two schools in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we estimate religious mosaics using latent class analysis (LCA) to identify profiles consisting of combinations of commonly available survey-based measures of religious attitudes, behaviors, and identities. Finding evidence of theoretically expected profiles, we then use stochastic actor–based models (SABMs) to investigate network dynamics for these LCA-based religious profiles. We demonstrate how the profile data can be integrated within the SABM framework to evaluate processes of friend selection and influence. Results show evidence of adolescents influencing one another's religious mosaics, but not selecting friends on that basis.     

Evaluation of a trial-based interview-informed synthesized contingency analysis

We evaluated the viability of an interview-informed synthesized-contingency analysis (IISCA) conducted in a trial-based format with 3 children with autism spectrum disorders who engaged in problem behavior. We compared results to those from typical trial-based and traditional functional analyses and found high degrees of correspondence. The trial-based IISCA format took the least amount of time to conduct and was associated with the lowest frequencies of problem behavior. Results are discussed in terms of merits of each of the 3 types of functional analysis arrangements and directions for future research.     

Contributions of positive behavior support amid lingering questions over its relationship with behavior analysis: A review of Positive behavior supports for adults with disabilities in employment,community, and residential settings by Storey and Post

Positive Behavior Supports for Adults with Disabilities in Employment, Community, and Residential Settings by Keith Storey and Michal Post (2019) presents valuable information for support providers and clinicians working with adults in inclusive settings who display challenging behavior. Numerous examples of challenging behavior encountered in such settings are provided along with a multitude of interventions for addressing the behavior in ways that comport with the values of positive behavior support (PBS). This review highlights contributions of the Storey and Post book and considers the content in regard to the controversial relationship between PBS and applied behavior analysis (ABA). The authors specify ABA as the foundation of PBS, but questions linger about the exact PBS–ABA relationship that will likely affect the book's ultimate contribution. Concern over the relationship is illustrated in regard to qualifications of behavioral professionals whom the authors often refer to as being necessary to help support providers develop and implement PBS interventions.     

The Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services: A brief review

The Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services (PDC-HS) is an informant-based tool designed to identify the variables contributing to poor employee performance in human service settings, such as clinics, schools, and residential facilities. Upon completion of the tool, an intervention indicated by PDC-HS results is used to improve employee performance. To date, the PDC-HS has been used in a number of studies. This review describes the existing research on the PDC-HS and provides suggestions for future research.     

Evaluation of an indirect assessment for identifying tasks for functional analysis

Although a demand analysis is helpful for identifying potential establishing operations for the functional analysis (FA) demand condition, it may not always be practical due to time constraints. A potential alternative is the Negative Reinforcement Rating Scale (NRRS), an indirect assessment tool that may serve as a time efficient alternative to a demand analysis. The experimenter assessed the reliability and validity of the NRRS for 5 individuals with autism spectrum disorder who exhibited problem behavior. Multiple types of interrater reliability were assessed across 2 informants, and NRRS outcomes were compared to a subsequent demand analysis and FA to assess its validity. Reliability was high (M = 84%) for NRRS numerical ratings of categories but low (M = 32.9%) for specific examples provided. NRRS-identified highly aversive tasks yielded better correspondence with demand analysis outcomes than did NRRS-identified less aversive tasks.     

A comparison of isolated and synthesized contingencies in functional analyses

Recently, researchers have compared the utility of isolated versus synthesized contingencies in functional analysis (FA) methodology (e.g., Fisher et al., 2016; Slaton et al., 2017). A limitation of these studies is that there were other differences across FA methodologies (e.g., design, contingency) that did not allow for isolation of the influence of isolated versus synthesized contingencies. Therefore, the current study compared outcomes of FAs that involved isolated versus synthesized contingencies for problem behavior of 5 children while controlling for these other differences across FAs (Experiment 1). Next, the current study compared the effects of interventions based on the functions identified in the isolated and synthesized contingencies for each participant (Experiment 2). Results indicated isolated contingency FAs produced differentiated responding for 1 or both functions for all 5 participants, and there were little to no differences between treatments informed by isolated and synthesized contingency FAs.