Good News for Moral Error Theorists: A Master Argument Against Companions in Guilt Strategies

Moral error theories are often rejected by appeal to ‘companions in guilt’ arguments. The most popular form of companions in guilt argument takes epistemic reasons for belief as a ‘companion’ and proceeds by analogy. I show that this strategy fails. I claim that the companions in guilt theorist must understand epistemic reasons as evidential support relations if her argument is to be dialectically effective. I then present a dilemma. Either epistemic reasons are evidential support relations or they are not. If they are not, then the companions in guilt argument fails. If they are, then a reduction of epistemic reasons to evidential support relations becomes available and, consequently, epistemic reasons cease to be a viable ‘companion’ for moral reasons. I recommend this structure of argument over existing strategies within the literature and defend my claims against recent objections from companions in guilt theorists.     

The Combined Effects of Measurement Error and Omitting Confounders in the Single-Mediator Model

Mediation analysis requires a number of strong assumptions be met in order to make valid causal inferences. Failing to account for violations of these assumptions, such as not modeling measurement error or omitting a common cause of the effects in the model, can bias the parameter estimates of the mediated effect. When the independent variable is perfectly reliable, for example when participants are randomly assigned to levels of treatment, measurement error in the mediator tends to underestimate the mediated effect, while the omission of a confounding variable of the mediator-to-outcome relation tends to overestimate the mediated effect. Violations of these two assumptions often co-occur, however, in which case the mediated effect could be overestimated, underestimated, or even, in very rare circumstances, unbiased. To explore the combined effect of measurement error and omitted confounders in the same model, the effect of each violation on the single-mediator model is first examined individually. Then the combined effect of having measurement error and omitted confounders in the same model is discussed. Throughout, an empirical example is provided to illustrate the effect of violating these assumptions on the mediated effect.     

An analysis of factors affecting wrong-way driving at a highway entrance using a driving simulator among older drivers with cognitive decline

About 200 highway wrong-way driving cases occur annually in Japan, of which about 70% are caused by older drivers. The number of these cases has remained consistent despite adoption of full-fledged measures against wrong-way driving, thus demonstrating the need for further measures. Reports indicate that older drivers include those with cognitive decline. Moreover, it has been revealed that drivers over 75 years of age who caused wrong-way driving had lower test scores in the usual cognitive function tests performed at the time of licence renewal. However, there is no clear evidence on the relationship between cognitive decline and driving behaviour that stimulates wrong-way driving. In this paper, we reproduced a wrong-way driving approaching a right turn to an expressway exit in a virtual environment using a driving simulator for older drivers, including those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). In addition to the measurement of driving behaviour and eye-tracking during simulator driving, we conducted a cognitive function test to investigate the relationship between driving behaviour and visual behaviour factors that initiate reverse running and cognitive decline. The results revealed that the reason for the start of a highway wrong-way driving may be a human error at the recognition stage of overlooking a visual wrong-way driving countermeasure, or a human error at the judgement stage of failing to suppress action despite noticing the visual countermeasure. Additionally, attentional and executive functions were related to the wrong-way initiative, although MCI did not affect it. This suggests that those who could not control their wrong-way driving behaviour despite observing the signs had specific executive function deficits.     

Sense of agency, associative learning, and schizotypy

Despite the fact that the role of learning is recognised in empirical and theoretical work on sense of agency (SoA), the nature of this learning has, rather surprisingly, received little attention. In the present study we consider the contribution of associative mechanisms to SoA. SoA can be measured quantitatively as a temporal linkage between voluntary actions and their external effects. Using an outcome blocking procedure, it was shown that training action–outcome associations under conditions of increased surprise augmented this temporal linkage. Moreover, these effects of surprise were correlated with schizotypy scores, suggesting that individual differences in higher level experiences are related to associative learning and to its impact on SoA. These results are discussed in terms of models of SoA, and our understanding of disrupted SoA in certain disorders.     

Proximal Antecedents and Correlates of Adopted Error Approach: A Self-Regulatory Perspective

ABSTRACT

The current study aims to further investigate earlier established advantages of an error mastery approach over an error aversion approach. The two main purposes of the study relate to (1) self-regulatory traits (i.e., goal orientation and action-state orientation) that may predict which error approach (mastery or aversion) is adopted, and (2) proximal, psychological processes (i.e., self-focused attention and failure attribution) that relate to adopted error approach. In the current study participants' goal orientation and action-state orientation were assessed, after which they worked on an error-prone task. Results show that learning goal orientation related to error mastery, while state orientation related to error aversion. Under a mastery approach, error occurrence did not result in cognitive resources “wasted” on self-consciousness. Rather, attention went to internal-unstable, thus controllable, improvement oriented causes of error. Participants that had adopted an aversion approach, in contrast, experienced heightened self-consciousness and attributed failure to internal-stable or external causes. These results imply that when working on an error-prone task, people should be stimulated to take on a mastery rather than an aversion approach towards errors.     

Overpredicting and Underprofiting in Pricing Decisions

This research examines sellers' price‐setting behavior and discovers a naturally occurring mismatch between sellers and buyers: Sellers who make a price decision often consider alternative prices and engage in the joint evaluation mode, whereas buyers who make a purchase decision see only the finally set price and are in the single evaluation mode. This mismatch in evaluation modes leads sellers to overpredict buyers' price sensitivity and underprice their products. However, these effects apply only to products unfamiliar to buyers and without salient reference prices and can be alleviated if sellers are encouraged to mimic single evaluation when making pricing decisions. These propositions are empirically tested and verified. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

高一学生的错题管理行为

在三次团体焦点访谈基础上自编高中生错题管理行为调查问卷,对内蒙古某中学110位高一学生被试的错题管理行为进行了调查。结果表明:(1)高一学生被试普遍认识到了错题对于学习的影响,从情感上不回避错题,但对错题的价值认识不足,尤其缺乏良好的错题管理的意识与系统的错题管理策略;(2)学优生在错题管理观念与态度上显著优于普通生;(3)学优生与普通生在错题管理行为与策略上不存在显著差异。在某些管理行为上,前者显著优于后者;在个别管理策略的使用上,后者却显著优于前者。     

错误信息特征对学科领域知识丰富性不同学生学习的错误监控之影响

采用Go/No-Go范式,26名中学生参与实验。考察在基于主体错误反应和基于客体错误信息两类错误监控条件下,学科领域知识教学实验组和对照组对不同类型错误信息监控的脑电成分。结果显示,(1) 错误反应监控条件下,实验组对要义特征的错误反应诱发的ERN较字面特征的更负,而对照组则相反。(2) 错误信息监控条件下,两组学生均表现出监控字面特征错误诱发的ERN波幅较监控要义特征错误的更大。(3) 两种监控条件均表现出实验组产生的ERN波形较对照组的更负。表明：虽然两类监控条件均能诱发明显的ERN,但其影响因素并不相同：基于主体错误反应的监控主要受个体对其错误加工深度的影响;基于客体错误信息的监控则受错误信息的清晰性影响。     

Testing the Physical Activity Self-Definition Model among low-active adults participating in a physical activity intervention

Seeing oneself as a physically active person is one of the strongest predictors of physical activity behaviour and self-regulatory strategies. Determining whether and how physical activity self-perceptions can be stimulated may help low-active individuals who do not see themselves as a physically active person become more active. Cross-sectional research has tested the Physical Activity Self-Definition (PASD) model among active samples; longitudinal studies among low-active adults have yet to be done. The purpose of this study was to test the predictive power of the PASD model among low-active adults over a 16-week physical activity intervention. Participants completed surveys of validated questionnaires in-person at baseline (pre-intervention) and at 16-weeks (end of intervention) at one of two primary care facilities. The final sample included 119 low-active adults. Partial least squares-structural equation modeling indicated that the original model had small-medium predictive power (Q² = 0.22; SRMR = 0.13 [0.05, 0.07]; RMSE = 1.13; MAE = 0.9; BIC = 1348.40). Two paths were added in the revised model (perceived wanting—PASD; perceived ability—perceived commitment), which explained an additional 4% and 5% of the variance in perceived commitment (R² = 0.62 [0.48, 0.72]) and PASD (R² = 0.74 [0.64, 0.80]; all p’s < 0.001), respectively. The revised model had medium predictive power (Q² = 0.25; SRMR = 0.11 [0.05, 0.06]; RMSE = 1.1; MAE = 0.87; BIC = 1332.84) All path coefficients remained positive and significant at p ≤ .001. Among low-active adults, perceived wanting and perceived ability may be more salient when engaging in physical activity and regarding themselves as a physically active person. Findings may support practitioners and health care professionals in designing physical activity interventions to foster PASD among low-active adult populations.     

How Change Happens: Controlling Images,Mutuality, and Power

SUMMARY

Change is inevitable but it can go in a positive direction toward growth or in a negative direction. Extending Patricia Hill Collins' concept of controlling images (2000), we can see how these images interact with relational images and strategies of disconnection to obstruct growth on both the societal and the personal level. In therapy, change is defined as movement-in-relationship toward better connection; and increased connection leads to growth. Several aspects of therapy that lead to deeper and wider connection are explored, especially increasing the patient's power. Prior versions of parts of this article were presented at the Jean Baker Miller Summer Training Institutes in 2001 and 2002 and at the 2002 Learning from Women Conference sponsored by the Jean Baker Miller Training Institute and the Harvard Medical School/Cambridge Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts.

As therapists, we're “in the business” of change–change for the better. That's our goal. Another word for change for the better is growth. Change is the essence of life. It is most obvious in children but it is a necessity through all of life. Change will occur inevitably but it can go in a positive or a negative direction. Further, I believe change toward growth creates pleasure. We feel most alive and zestful when we are engaged in this expanding activity.