Study for now,but judge for later: Delayed judgments of learning promote long‐term retention

Larsson Sundqvist, M., Todorov, I., Kubik, V. & Jönsson, F.U. (2012) Study for now, but judge for later: Delayed judgments of learning promote long‐term retention. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 53, 450–454. Delayed judgments of learning (JOL) are assumed to be based on covert retrieval attempts. A common finding is that testing memory during learning improves later retention (i.e., the testing effect), and even more so than an equivalent amount of study, but only after a longer retention interval. To test the assertion that also delayed JOLs improve memory, the participants either studied Swahili‐Swedish word pairs four times, or they both studied (two times) and performed delayed JOLs (two times) alternately. Final cued recall test were given after either five minutes or one week. Results showed a reliable learning‐group by retention‐interval interaction, with less forgetting in the group that alternated between studying and making JOLs. The results are discussed in relation to the self‐fulfilling prophecy account of Spellman and Bjork (1992) , and in terms of study advice, the results further underscore the importance of delaying JOLs when studying and evaluating one’s ongoing learning.     

提取练习在记忆保持与迁移中的优势效应：基于认知负荷理论的解释

提取练习比建构概念图更有利于记忆保持和迁移的研究结果尚存在争议。依据认知负荷的3个成分,设计两个实验探究前期知识水平与策略复杂性对以上两种学习策略有效性的影响。结果表明：(1)前期知识水平的主效应不显著,但是与学习策略之间存在交互作用：在提取练习策略条件下,高前期知识水平的被试与低前期知识水平的被试在记忆保持和迁移上的正确率没有显著差异,但是在建构概念图策略条件下,高前期知识水平的被试在记忆保持和迁移上的正确率显著地高于低前期知识水平的被试;(2)当降低概念图的难度后,被试使用建构部分概念图策略产生的认知负荷与使用提取练习策略相比显著降低,并且其在学习阶段学习到的知识量显著地高于使用提取练习策略的结果,但是在最终测试上,其记忆保持与迁移的正确率与使用提取练习策略并没有显著差异,策略的复杂性增加了学习者的额外负荷,但是对策略有效性的发挥却不具有决定性影响。以上结果说明提取练习策略之所以比建构概念图策略更具优势,不是因为其策略本身更易掌握,而是因为其与建构概念图策略相比不受学习者前期知识水平的影响。这意味着认知负荷理论可以很好地解释提取练习在记忆保持与迁移中产生优势效应的内部机制,并进一步证实提取练习与精细编码不同,具有独特的加工机制。     

多篇章学习中提取练习策略对高阶技能的影响

采用多篇章学习方式, 结合测试效应研究的经典范式, 设计两个实验探究提取练习策略对高阶技能的影响。结果表明：(1)连续学习3篇文章后, 在最终测试阶段学习策略主效应显著, 提取练习组高阶技能的成绩更优：提取组在每篇文章学习间隔中插入即时测试, 无论是概念型知识还是高阶技能, 最终测试中的成绩都显著高于重学组, 但其反应时却低于重学组。在提取练习组中, 概念型知识与高阶技能成绩均有提升, 但概念型知识比高阶技能提升幅度明显; (2)将篇章数扩展至5篇后, 最终测试中, 提取练习组的成绩仍显著高于重学组。对高阶技能4个维度作以分析后发现, 两组在应用与分析维度上差异显著, 但在评估与创造维度上, 提取练习组成绩虽有提升但差异不显著。结果证实了提取练习是高效学习的有效策略, 不仅体现在单独内容的记忆保持, 也可扩展到连续学习中高阶技能的发展与促进。研究支持了情景语境解释对提取练习内部机制的阐述, 并进一步验证了前摄抑制干扰理论和上下文内容转换假说的观点。     

基于Think/No-think范式的动机性遗忘研究:行为与脑机制

想/不想范式(Think/No-think,TNT)是基于go/no-go范式提出来的用于研究动机性遗忘过程的实验范式,主要过程是指个体对于记忆的提取抑制可以导致随后该记忆的遗忘。近年来TNT范式的大量行为学研究都一致性地发现记忆提取抑制可以产生负性控制效应,验证了在实验室情境下对动机性遗忘进行研究的可行性。其中,负性控制效应指的是压抑条件的项目相对于基线条件的项目的回忆量有显著降低。关于动机性遗忘发生的神经机制的探讨已积累了大量的研究证据,总结脑电(EEG)和功能核磁共振(f MRI)两个模态的研究,我们提出了动机性遗忘发生的多模态功能网络模型。最后,在该模型的基础上,我们展望了TNT范式未来的研究方向,其中特别注意到同步EEG-f MRI技术的应用有望为我们揭示出记忆提取抑制导致的动机性遗忘发生的动态过程。     

前临床期痴呆的认知特征：当前研究进展和未来研究展望

在这篇文章中, 我将讨论从正常老化到痴呆, 这一通常被称为痴呆前临床阶段的认知功能的转变。研究表明, 阿尔茨海默症和血管性痴呆病人在临床确诊之前的几年中, 会出现明显的认知损伤。早期最突出的损伤存在于情节记忆、加工速度以及执行功能。这些功能性损伤与神经生物学研究证实的边缘系统和新皮层区存在多重损伤是相一致的。虽然早在临床诊段之前, 病人组和控制组的平均成绩存在巨大差异, 但同时这两组测试成绩的分布在很大程度上是重叠的。寻求降低这种重叠度的方法是未来研究的一个重要任务。这有可能通过将认知的和其他指标(如基于脑的、基因的、临床的、社会的)相结合构建预测模型来实现。此外, 在未来研究中以下三方面也是急需考虑问题: (a) 找出在 前临床期间认知功能急速下降的时间点: (b) 评估从前临床到临床诊断变化速率中存在的个体差异; (c) 确定特定因素与随后发生的痴呆之间的关联强度是如何随时间向临床确诊推进而逐渐变化的。     

编码任务对来源记忆的影响:一项事件相关电位研究

本研究采用ERPs技术,探讨编码任务对来源记忆的影响及其神经机制。在学习阶段,被试进行两种编码操作：匹配判断任务和大小判断任务;在测验阶段,让被试进行来源判断任务。行为结果发现：在编码阶段,匹配判断任务比大小判断任务需要更长的时间;在测验阶段,匹配判断任务在“项目旧/背景旧”和“部分旧”条件的正确率显著高于大小判断任务,匹配判断任务在“项目旧/背景旧”条件的反应时显著短于大小判断任务。测验阶段ERPs结果发现：两种编码任务的新旧效应在200~700ms均有较广泛的头皮分布,而在700~1100ms呈前额皮层最大化分布;匹配判断任务的新旧效应比大小判断任务更大,表现在600~700ms的FPz电极以及700~800ms的Pz、P4电极。由此可见,在来源记忆中,编码任务影响来源记忆,主要表现在后部顶区位置;晚期前额皮层新旧效应不受任务难度因素的影响。     

预见:情景记忆的未来投射与重构

预见是对有关个人的未来事件进行模拟的过程。相关的研究从几个方面展开:从比较心理学的角度探讨预见能力的种系发生图谱,从发展心理学的角度考察预见能力的发生发展状况,从认知神经科学的角度揭示预见过程的认知机制和神经基础。未来的研究应该补充和修正预见能力的种系发生图谱,揭示发展过程中预见能力与其他能力的关系,进一步考察卷入预见过程脑区之间的特定神经通路,并提高和拓展其社会应用的价值和范围。     

Specific effects of the Trier Social Stress Test on speech fluency in young and older adults

The notion that speech becomes less fluent during stressful speaking conditions has received little empirical test, and no research has tested this relationship in older adult participants. We analyzed speeches produced during the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) or during a less stressful placebo (pTSST) version of the task. We measured young and older adults’ speech fillers (e.g., um), unfilled pauses (at least 1 s in duration), and other disfluencies (e.g., repetitions, repairs). Neither young nor older adult participants rated themselves as having greater stress in the TSST than pTSST condition, but behavioral effects were obtained. Participants in the TSST condition produced more mid-phrase speech fillers and unfilled pauses than participants in the pTSST condition. Young adults produced more unfilled pauses than older adults overall, and older adults produced more mid-phrase fillers than young adults. Critically, age group interacted with experimental condition, such that older speakers produced disproportionately more mid-phrase fillers than young adults in the TSST compared to the pTSST condition. In sum, the negative effects of the TSST on fluency were generally similar across age, but this specific age-related increase in mid-phrase fillers indicates that older adults’ word retrieval may have been particularly negatively affected. Findings are generally consistent with previous research and add to understanding of how factors internal to the speaker (i.e., demographic, personality, and cognitive variables) and factors external to the speaker (i.e., variables regarding the situation, context, or content of speech) combine to affect speech fluency.     

Aging and strategic retrieval in a cued-recall test: the role of executive functions and fluid intelligence

Cued-recall in episodic memory was investigated in relation to low and high cognitive support at retrieval, executive function level and fluid intelligence level in 81 healthy adults divided first into two age groups (young and elderly adults). The first analyses showed that age-related differences were greater when a low cognitive support was provided to recall the words. An individual index of loss of performance when the number of cues was decreased was then calculated. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the executive functions measure (perseverative errors on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test) was a better candidate than the fluid intelligence measure (Cattell's culture fair test) to account for the age-related variance of the size of performance loss. These findings suggest that age differences in implementing strategic retrieval may be mainly due to a decline in executive functions.     

The influence of instructions and terminology on the accuracy of remember–know judgments

The remember–know paradigm is one of the most widely used procedures to examine the subjective experience associated with memory retrieval. We examined how the terminology and instructions used to describe the experiences of remembering and knowing affected remember–know judgments. In Experiment 1 we found that using neutral terms, i.e., Type A memory and Type B memory, to describe the experiences of remembering and knowing reduced remember false alarms for younger and older adults as compared to using the terms Remember and Know, thereby increasing overall memory accuracy in the neutral terminology condition. In Experiment 2 we found that using what we call source-specific remember–know instructions, which were intended to constrain remember judgments to recollective experiences arising only from the study context, reduced remember hits and false alarms, and increased know hits and false alarms. Based on these data and other considerations, we conclude that researchers should use neutral terminology and source-specific instructions to collect the most accurate reports of the experiences of remembering and knowing arising from the study context.