Cooperative responding in rats: II. Performance on fixed-ratio schedules of mutual reinforcement

Coordinated responses of 5 dyads of rats were investigated under fixed-ratio (FR) schedules of mutual water reinforcement. Coordinated responding was defined as 2 consecutive lever-presses, 1 from each of 2 rats, occurring <.5 s apart. In the FR schedules, each coordinated episode was defined as 1 response in the FR sequence. The size of FR schedules was parametrically manipulated assuming the values of FR 1, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 50, and 9, in this order. Each FR remained in effect until responding reached stability. Under all conditions, pairs of rats received access to water simultaneously (mutual reinforcement). Rates and proportions of coordinated responding showed a bitonic inverted U-shaped function of ratio size. Postreinforcement pauses increased systematically as the interreinforcement interval increased. Local rates and proportions increased as a function of response location within ratios. Results of a control condition with relaxed temporal constraints for mutual reinforcement showed decreases in rates and proportion of coordinated responses, suggesting that the coordinated responses were controlled by the mutual reinforcement contingencies. The present experiment showed that coordinated responding is quantitatively affected by 3 properties of FR schedules: response requirement, reinforcement rates, and proximity to reinforcement.     

Preschoolers affect others' reputations through prosocial gossip

Providing evaluative information to others about absent third parties helps them to identify cooperators and avoid cheaters. Here, we show that 5‐year‐olds, but not 3‐year‐olds, reliably engage in such prosocial gossip. In an experimental setting, 5‐year‐old children spontaneously offered relevant reputational information to guide a peer towards a cooperative partner. Three‐year‐old children offered such evaluative information only rarely, although they still showed a willingness to inform in a non‐evaluative manner. A follow‐up study revealed that one component involved in this age difference is children's developing ability to provide justifications. The current results extend previous work on young children's tendency to manage their own reputation by showing that preschoolers also influence others' reputations via gossip.     

医学与人文

人文精神就是尊重人的价值,就是对生命价值的尊重,对头脑价值的尊重,对灵魂价值的尊重.生命是神圣的,对生命应有一种敬畏感.尊重自己的生命,同时尊重他人的生命;医生以生命为工作对象,医生应当是具有人格尊严、灵魂高尚的人道主义者;现代医学非人性化的主要表现是医学技术化和医学的市场化.     

中西医结合临床思路浅谈——论辨证与辨病的关系

辨证与辨病是两种不同的思维方式,西医辨病又辨证,中医辨证又辨病,辨病与辨证是中医与西医都遵循的诊治过程,在临床中辩证运用中医与西医有利于中西医结合临床思路的建立     

以新型农村合作医疗为平台加强农村妇幼保健工作

住院分娩是否应该纳入新型农村合作医疗的补偿范围,目前在学术界和实践中仍然存在争议。以陕西省镇安县为案例,从公共政策分析的角度,通过对该县定额住院分娩制度运行效果的分析,论证了把住院分娩纳入合作医疗补偿范围的积极意义,同时针对该制度运行过程中出现的问题提出了相应的政策建议。     

论医学中商业贿赂的概念和伦理问题

讨论医学中商业贿赂的概念和伦理问题。在讨论概念问题时,首先厘清什么是贿赂及医学中的商业贿赂,以及贿赂与其他不当行为的区别。所讨论的伦理问题包括:为什么在医学中贿赂在伦理学上得不到辩护,以及分析这种不合伦理的行为为什么会发生及可能的防治办法。     

构建新型医患关系控制医院医疗风险

医疗风险普遍存在,医疗风险的控制就是在风险发生后,医方能及时、准确地采取各种措施,有效、经济地减少损害、弥补损失。针对医患双方在风险发生后有不同的心理特点,医院应该构建以病人为中心的、非惩罚的、和谐的医患关系,从而实现控制医疗风险的目的。     

关于急诊医生的临床思维方法

急诊医学是一门新兴的综合学科,它涉及的范围很广.急诊患者具有急、危、重、难等特点,并要求在较短的时间内必须做出正确的判断.因此,严谨的临床思维方式和科学的逻辑思维方式,是每位急诊医生必需的训练.介绍急诊临床思维的特点,以及系统思维在急诊常见病诊治中应用的一些经验体会.     

冠心病诊治中的过度医疗

近年来,过度医疗问题引起了医学伦理学界的普遍关注.过度医疗是一个经济现象,同时也是一个伦理问题,确切的说是一个医学-社会问题.结合冠心病过度医疗的特点,从医学伦理学角度剖析冠心病过度医疗的原因,并提出了医者、患者、医疗机构和社会针对冠心病过度医疗应采取的措施.     

医疗风险管理与医患关系的调适

医疗行为具有高风险属性,但医疗机构经营目标不是追求自身利益最大化,而是公众健康,因此医疗机构风险管理的手段和目标应该着眼于影响目标实现的各种不确定因素,这就要求把医患关系状况纳入风险管理范畴。在当前社会环境下,医疗机构自觉地自留一部分风险成本更有利于经营目标的实现和医患关系的协调。