The Challenges of Extreme Moral Stress: Claudia Card's Contributions to the Formation of Nonideal Ethical Theory

This essay argues that Claudia Card numbers among important contributors to nonideal ethical theory (NET), and it advocates for the worth of NET. Following philosophers including Lisa Tessman and Charles Mills, the essay contends that it is important for ethical theory, and for feminist purposes, to carry forward the interrelationship that Mills identifies between nonideal theory and feminist ethics. Card's ethical theorizing assists in understanding that interrelationship. Card's philosophical work includes basic elements of NET indicated by Tessman, Mills, and others, and further offers two important and neglected elements to other nonideal ethical theorists: (i) her rejection of the “administrative point of view,” and (ii) her focus on “intolerable harms” as forms of “extreme moral stress” and obstacles to excellent ethical lives. The essay concludes that Card's insights are helpful to philosophers in developing nonideal ethical theory as a distinctive contribution to, and as a subset of, nonideal theory.     

Against the Additive View of Imagination

According to the additive view of sensory imagination, mental imagery often involves two elements. There is an image-like element, which gives the experiences qualitative phenomenal character akin to that of perception. There is also a non-image element, consisting of something like suppositions about the image's object. This accounts for extra-sensory features of imagined objects and situations: for example, it determines whether an image of a grey horse is an image of Desert Orchid, or of some other grey horse. The view promises to give a simple and intuitive explanation of some puzzling features of imagination, and, further, to illuminate imagination's relation to modal knowledge. I contend that the additive view does not fulfil these two promises. The explanation of how images come to be determinate is redundant: the content constituting the indeterminate mental images on which the view relies is sufficient to deliver determinate images too, so the extra resources offered by the view are not required. When applied to modal epistemology, the view either delivers implausible results or offers no distinctive insight. Since the view is sold on its explanatory merits, and since these are dubious, the additive view should be rejected.     

傅斯年的心理学探索及其贡献

傅斯年是被忽视的近代中国心理学人, 他与心理学渊源极深, 不仅是近代科学心理学思想的学习者、传播者, 也是科学心理学思想的践行者。傅斯年学习心理学前后共12年, 写有《心理分析导引》专著一部, 最早翻译麦独孤的《群体心理学》, 另有《性命古训辩证》等哲学著作和多篇文章阐述其心理学观点。傅斯年认为中国近代学术包括心理学研究必然走向科学化, 做出“科学化的东方学之正统在中国”的基本判断, 将“有群众无社会的无秩序取向” “心中无主义的心气薄弱性” “万恶之源的家庭教育”作为当时民众心理发展的三大障碍, 并倡导民众确定一个健康的、即物穷理的、积极努力和纪律约束并存的人性观。傅斯年参与了“中研院”心理研究所、中山大学和台湾大学心理系的创建, 与蔡元培、汪敬熙、唐钺、苏芗雨等心理学人关系密切, 共同推动了科学心理学在中国的传播和早期中国心理学学科建设, 其一生中存在一条选择心理学, 学习心理学, 离开心理学又助推心理学和运用心理学的心灵探索之路。     

依恋关系的形成：保护情境中母亲和婴儿的作用

母婴依恋是婴儿期形成的首要关系之一, 同时也是影响儿童早期社会化的关系性背景。以亲子互动中形成依恋安全感差异的相关研究为基础, 从特质观、领域特殊观和社会认知观的角度对它们进行梳理, 有助于提炼出母亲的敏感性、特定的互动情境以及儿童的社会预期分别在预测母婴依恋关系中的作用。3种研究取向的整合有赖于细致地区分特质观和社会认知观在看待亲子互动中双方情绪状态、认知能力和回应过程上的差别; 制定新的依恋干预方案应当以提高父母识别和应对婴儿消极情绪的能力, 以及为婴儿提供适当的依随性学习经验为目的。     

How to Do Things with Emotional Expressions: The Theory of Affective Pragmatics

It is widely accepted that emotional expressions can be rich communicative devices. We can learn much from the tears of a grieving friend, the smiles of an affable stranger, or the slamming of a door by a disgruntled lover. So far, a systematic analysis of what can be communicated by emotional expressions of different kinds and of exactly how such communication takes place has been missing. The aim of this article is to introduce a new framework for the study of emotional expressions that I call the theory of affective pragmatics (TAP). As linguistic pragmatics focuses on what utterances mean in a context, affective pragmatics focuses on what emotional expressions mean in a context. TAP develops and connects two principal insights. The first is the insight that emotional expressions do much more than simply expressing emotions. As proponents of the Behavioral Ecology View of facial movements have long emphasized, bodily displays are sophisticated social tools that can communicate the signaler's intentions and requests. Proponents of the Basic Emotion View of emotional expressions have acknowledged this fact, but they have failed to emphasize its importance, in part because they have been in the grip of a mistaken theory of emotional expressions as involuntary readouts of emotions. The second insight that TAP aims to articulate and apply to emotional expressions is that it is possible to engage in analogs of speech acts without using language at all. I argue that there are important and so far largely unexplored similarities between what we can “do” with words and what we can “do” with emotional expressions. In particular, the core tenet of TAP is that emotional expressions are a means not only of expressing what's inside but also of directing other people's behavior, of representing what the world is like and of committing to future courses of action. Because these are some of the main things we can do with language, the take home message of my analysis is that, from a communicative point of view, much of what we can do with language we can also do with non-verbal emotional expressions. I conclude by exploring some reasons why, despite the analogies I have highlighted, emotional expressions are much less powerful communicative tools than speech acts.     

Rights Forfeiture Theorists Should Embrace the Duty View of Punishment

In this paper, I bring into conversation with each other two views about the justification of punishment: the rights forfeiture theory and the duty view. I argue that philosophers attracted to the former should instead accept the latter.     

Learning unfamiliar faces in infants: The advantage of the regular sequence presentation and the three‐quarter view superiority

We investigated the effect of the regular sequence of different views and the three‐quarter view effect on the learning of unfamiliar faces by infants. 3–8‐month‐old infants were familiarized with unfamiliar female faces in either the regular condition (presenting 11 different face views from the frontal view to the left‐side profile view in regular order) or the random condition (presenting the same 11 different face views in random order). Following the familiarization, infants were tested with a pair of a familiarized and a novel female face either in a three‐quarter (Experiment 1) or in a profile view (Experiment 2). Results showed that only 6–8‐month‐old infants could identify a familiarized face in the regular condition when they were tested in three‐quarter views. In contrast, 6–8‐month‐old infants showed no significant novelty preference in profile views. The results suggest that the regular sequence of different face views promotes the learning of unfamiliar faces by infants over 6 months old. Moreover, our findings imply that the three‐quarter view effect appears in infants.     

深入研究马克思主义宗教观

当今世界,宗教在国际国内社会的影响力日益上升,正确认识和对待宗教问题,比以往任何时候都更加重要和紧迫。马克思主义宗教观是建立在现代自然科学、社会科学和思维科学基础之上的科学宗教观,是我们观察宗教问题的锐利思想武器、开展宗教工作的根本指导思想、搞好宗教研究的基本科学方法。当前,我们必须全面、深刻地理解马克思主义宗教观的精神实质,把握其历史唯物的基本原则、科学辩证的基本方法和与时俱进的理论品质,积极推进马克思主义宗教观中国化、时代化、大众化。     

Axiomatizing hybrid products: How can we reason many-dimensionally in hybrid logic?

The aim of this paper is to propose a two-dimensional hybrid logic in order to formalize inferences containing both spatial and temporal propositions. The semantic idea behind the proposal is to name both horizontal and vertical lines in a 2D-plane by two kinds of nominals. This is a generalization of the idea of naming a point in one-dimensional hybrid logic. I give an axiomatization of the proposed two-dimensional hybrid logic and show that it enjoys a general completeness result (called pure completeness) with respect to product Kripke frames. Moreover, in order to capture $T\times W$-frames studied by R.H. Thomason (1984), I introduce the notion of a dependent product frame, which enables us to represent the dependence of space over time. I also give a complete axiomatization of this dependent two-dimensional hybrid logic, and, as a corollary, reveal that a hybridization of $T\times W$-logic enjoys strong completeness.     

Freud's metapsychological speculations1

In this paper, the author seeks to analyse the nature and function of metapsychological theory in Freudian psychoanalysis. He shows that Freudian psychoanalytic theory is composed of an empirical part‐the psychology of clinical facts‐and a speculative part‐metapsychology. Freud considers this latter part as being a speculative superstructure of value that is only heuristic, capable of being supplanted by other superstructures of the same type. The author sustains the idea that this metapsychology is the fruit of speculative method, whose foundations were elaborated by philosophers and epistemologists before Freud, including Immanuel Kant and Ernst Mach. He concludes with considerations regarding the future of metapsychological theorisation, presenting criticisms of Freudian metapsychology offered by both philosophers and psychoanalysts, and pointing to the perspective opened by Donald W. Winnicott of a psychoanalysis without metapsychology.