Delay discounting of different outcomes: Review and theory

Steep delay discounting is characterized by a preference for small immediate outcomes relative to larger delayed outcomes and is predictive of drug abuse, risky sexual behaviors, and other maladaptive behaviors. Nancy M. Petry was a pioneer in delay discounting research who demonstrated that people discount delayed monetary gains less steeply than they discount substances with abuse liability. Subsequent research found steep discounting for not only drugs, but other nonmonetary outcomes such as food, sex, and health. In this systematic review, we evaluate the hypotheses proposed to explain differences in discounting as a function of the type of outcome and explore the trait- and state-like nature of delay discounting. We found overwhelming evidence for the state-like quality of delay discounting: Consistent with Petry and others' work, nonmonetary outcomes are discounted more steeply than monetary outcomes. We propose two hypotheses that together may account for this effect: Decreasing Future Preference and Decreasing Future Worth. We also found clear evidence that delay discounting has trait-like qualities: People who steeply discount monetary outcomes steeply discount nonmonetary outcomes as well. The implication is that changing delay discounting for one outcome could change discounting for other outcomes.     

How much risk can you stomach? Individual differences in the tolerance of perceived risk across gender and risk domain

Research within the psychological risk–return framework, namely, using the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking scale, has led to a conclusion that risk attitude—measured as an individual's sensitivity to the risk they perceive—is stable across people (e.g., gender) and domains (e.g., recreational, social, financial, & health). Risk taking differences across gender and domain have been interpreted in terms of differences in the magnitude of risk perceived (and expected benefit). Yet the Domain-Specific Risk-Taking scale items, contrived by researchers rather than decision makers themselves, may have failed to detect differences in perceived risk attitude by failing to adequately represent all combinations of risks and benefits across gender and domains. In Study 1, participants generated their own examples of activities, which we selected among in Studies 2 and 3 to construct a new scale representing various levels of perceived risk and expected benefit. Our findings reveal that women are more sensitive than men to risk they perceive (i.e., are less tolerant of risk) in the recreational, social, and financial domains but not in the health domain. Risk attitude also differed across domains, with participants tolerating more risk in some domains than in others. We conclude that gender and domain differences in risk taking stem partly from gender and domain differences in people's sensitivity to perceived risks. Our findings have theoretical implications for the psychological risk–return framework and bridge with other theoretical approaches, such as the expected utility framework. Our studies also provide a new scale for assessing differences in attitudes toward risk that overcomes shortcomings of existing scales.     

学科领域知识和学业成绩对工作记忆广度的影响

引入Alexander领域知识概念形成数学学科领域知识,以七年级有理数单元为研究材料,编写问卷和E-Prime实验程序,筛选60名初中生为被试,考察数学学科领域知识和学业成绩对工作记忆广度的影响。研究发现:(1)学优生的认知过程知识和问题条件知识显著高于学困生,而学理内容知识差异不显著;(2)在简单加工任务上,学优生和学困生工作记忆广度差异不显著。在复杂任务上,学优生的工作记忆广度都显著高于学困生;(3)当工作记忆广度任务中存储部分的词语和数学学科领域知识相关时,问题条件知识分数和认知过程分数能够显著地预测工作记忆广度。而不相关时,仅问题条件知识分数能够显著地预测工作记忆广度。     

学科领域知识与数学学习的知识表征研究

根据领域知识的结构特点对初中数学学科知识作出改编和重组,形成数学学科领域知识单元进行教学实验,以215名普通初中二年级学生为被试,通过自编问卷和深度访谈考察学科领域知识对知识表征的影响,并探讨了知识表征与数学学业成绩之间的关系。研究发现:(1)学科领域知识可以显著提高学生数学陈述性知识表征全面性和总体水平;(2)学科领域知识可以显著提高学生的程序性知识表征全面性、自动化、组织性和总体水平;(3)认知结构三要素、陈述性知识表征及程序性知识表征与数学成绩显著相关;(4)学优生的陈述性知识表征准确性、总体水平和程序性知识表征组织性、总体水平显著高于中等生和学困生。     

Non-monotonic Probability Theory and Photon Polarization

A non-monotonic theory of probability is put forward and shown to have applicability in the quantum domain. It is obtained simply by replacing Kolmogorov’s positivity axiom, which places the lower bound for probabilities at zero, with an axiom that reduces that lower bound to minus one. Kolmogorov’s theory of probability is monotonic, meaning that the probability of A is less then or equal to that of B whenever A entails B. The new theory violates monotonicity, as its name suggests; yet, many standard theorems are also theorems of the new theory since Kolmogorov’s other axioms are retained. What is of particular interest is that the new theory can accommodate quantum phenomena (photon polarization experiments) while preserving Boolean operations, unlike Kolmogorov’s theory. Although non-standard notions of probability have been discussed extensively in the physics literature, they have received very little attention in the philosophical literature. One likely explanation for that difference is that their applicability is typically demonstrated in esoteric settings that involve technical complications. That barrier is effectively removed for non-monotonic probability theory by providing it with a homely setting in the quantum domain. Although the initial steps taken in this paper are quite substantial, there is much else to be done, such as demonstrating the applicability of non-monotonic probability theory to other quantum systems and elaborating the interpretive framework that is provisionally put forward here. Such matters will be developed in other works.     

学业情绪及其影响因素

学业情绪是指在教学或学习过程中,与学生学业相关的各种情绪体验。个体的自我认知、成就目标、认知能力等个体因素以及班级、家庭、课堂等环境因素都会影响学业情绪,且自我认知是环境因素影响其学业情绪的一个重要中介变量。另外,学业情绪具有领域特异性。未来研究的方向主要在于学业情绪的界定和具体结构的深入探讨、学业情绪的发展特点、对特殊群体学生学业情绪的关注以及积极探索有效的干预措施等方面     

When is peer rejection justifiable? Children's understanding across two cultures

This study investigated how Korean (N = 397) and U.S. (N = 333) children and adolescents (10 and 13 years of age) evaluated personality (aggression, shyness) and group (gender, nationality) characteristics as a basis for peer rejection in three contexts (friendship rejection, group exclusion, victimization). Overall, peer rejection based on group membership was viewed as more unfair than peer rejection based on personality traits. Children viewed friendship rejection as more legitimate than group exclusion or victimization and used more personal choice reasoning for friendship rejection than for rejection in any other context. Although there were a few cultural differences, overall, the findings provided support for the cultural generalizability of social reasoning about peer rejection.     

Riskier for me or for others? The role of domain and probability in self-other differences,in risky decision-making

Abstract

In social and economic interactions, people often decide differently for others, as against for themselves, under situations involving risks. This sometimes leads to conflicts or contradictions. Although previous studies have explored such contradictions, the findings have been inconsistent. To reconcile these inconsistencies, this paper investigates the role played by the different domains and probabilities in the self-other differences under risk. Two groups of participants completed a gambling task combining different domains (gain vs. loss) and probabilities (small vs. large). One group made decisions for others and the other group made decisions for themselves. The results revealed a four pattern of discrepancy: the ones who made decisions for others were less risk-seeking than those who made decisions for themselves over the small probability gains. This was reversed over the large probability gains. Conversely, the participants who made decisions for others were more risk-seeking than those who made decisions for themselves over the small probability losses. The results were reversed over the large probability losses. These results reconcile the contradictory findings of the previous studies and suggest the significant role played by contextual factors in such discrepancies.     

刻板印象威胁来源对防御反应的影响

以多重威胁框架为理论基础,探讨了刻板印象威胁来源对防御反应的影响。实验一和实验二选取了性别-数学刻板印象威胁,分别考察了自我概念威胁和群体概念威胁对女性防御反应的影响。结果发现,不管是自我概念威胁还是群体概念威胁,女性尝试数学题目数量都显著小于语文题目数量,表明产生了领域回避。两项研究共同说明,以自我为刻板印象威胁来源对防御反应产生影响