The chimpanzee mind: in search of the evolutionary roots of the human mind

One advantage of living in a social group is the opportunity to use information provided by other individuals. Social information can be based on cues provided by a conspecific or even by a heterospecific individual (e.g., gaze direction, vocalizations, pointing gestures). Although the use of human gaze and gestures has been extensively studied in primates, and is increasingly studied in other mammals, there is no documentation of birds using these cues in a cooperative context. In this study, we tested the ability of three African gray parrots to use different human cues (pointing and/or gazing) in an object-choice task. We found that one subject spontaneously used the most salient pointing gesture (looking and steady pointing with hand at about 20 cm from the baited box). The two others were also able to use this cue after 15 trials. None of the parrots spontaneously used the steady gaze cues (combined head and eye orientation), but one learned to do so effectively after only 15 trials when the distance between the head and the baited box was about 1 m. However, none of the parrots were able to use the momentary pointing nor the distal pointing and gazing cues. These results are discussed in terms of sensitivity to joint attention as a prerequisite to understand pointing gestures as it is to the referential use of labels.     

言语表情标记在儿童寓言故事理解中的作用

运用听读理解测验的方法探讨言语表情标记对6～8岁儿童寓言故事理解的影响。结果表明。言语表情标记能促进各年龄组儿童对故事的理解,这种促进作用在6、7岁儿童身上表现得非常显著。男、女儿童对有、无言语表情标记的故事的理解不存在显著差异。     

When good news leads to bad choices

Pigeons and other animals sometimes deviate from optimal choice behavior when given informative signals for delayed outcomes. For example, when pigeons are given a choice between an alternative that always leads to food after a delay and an alternative that leads to food only half of the time after a delay, preference changes dramatically depending on whether the stimuli during the delays are correlated with (signal) the outcomes or not. With signaled outcomes, pigeons show a much greater preference for the suboptimal alternative than with unsignaled outcomes. Key variables and research findings related to this phenomenon are reviewed, including the effects of durations of the choice and delay periods, probability of reinforcement, and gaps in the signal. We interpret the available evidence as reflecting a preference induced by signals for good news in a context of uncertainty. Other explanations are briefly summarized and compared.     

THE USE OF MORALISTIC STATEMENTS IN SOCIAL MANIPULATION: A REPLY TO ROY A. RAPPAPORT

Abstract. Rappaport's comment includes several errors. First, he conflates manipulation and deceit. Second, he confuses the rationalism of the evolutionary biological analysis of organisms with the rationalism (or lack thereof) of the motivational and cognitive structures of the organisms under study. Third, his moralistic judgment of my focus on manipulation implies that scientists should not only not explore but should also suppress such unsettling ideas. We will make little progress in understanding morality and in fostering truly moral behavior if we refuse to acknowledge that moralistic statements may sometimes, and perhaps even often, be used in a manipulative way.     

The effect of manual movements on stuttering in individuals with down syndrome

PurposeStuttering may disrupt the speech of individuals with Down syndrome (DS), but standard stuttering therapies may be less adapted to these clients’ needs. This study examined if their strength in gesture use can lead to the development of a new stuttering therapy.MethodEighteen individuals with DS who stutter participated in an experimental task. During this task, they produced sentences in three different conditions: once without the ability to use gestures, once while moving the mouth of a hand puppet synchronous with their speech, and once while making beat gestures along their speech. Stuttering frequency was measured and compared between conditions while controlling for the effect of articulation rate.ResultsThe experimental hand puppet and beat condition did not affect the stuttering frequency, but the covariate articulation rate did. An exploratory posthoc analysis showed that the articulation rate decreased during the experimental hand puppet and beat condition. Manual movements in the present task might only induce fluency through articulation rate reduction. However, analyses at individual level show significant interindividual variability.ConclusionIndividual analyses show that effect on stuttering frequency cannot be attributed entirely to articulation rate reduction and that beat gestures might still play a role. However, at this point, there is not enough direct evidence to implement beat gestures in current stuttering therapy.     

RELIGION AND EMPIRICISM IN THE WORKS OF PETER BERGER

Abstract. Peter Berger established himself in the sociological profession in large part through his functional interpretations of religion and its ostensible demise in relation to the empirical bent of modern intellectual thought. Yet, in his ef–fort to expand the scope of empiricism such that it might address nontrivial concerns, Berger found himself attempting to understand the "substance" of religiori—that is, the conviction that there exists an "other" which confronts us unconditionally and consequently forms the basis of all issues concerning value and meaning. Berger's writings deserve critical attention in that they disclose both the problems and the promises of utilizing empirical methods for the task of rehabilitating, rather than debunking, humanity's religious propensities.     

Working Experientially and Somatically with Couples

SUMMARY

Working experientially and somatically with couples is a powerful method of accessing, exploring, and transforming both intra-psychic issues and interactional patterns. In this article, a number of methods of working experientially will be described, along with their underlying rationale. Basic assumptions about the nature of couple's difficulties and the role of the therapist also will be explored along with an integrated approach to assessment that provides a solid basis for these dramatic interventions.     

Exploring the effects of EEG signals on collision cases happening in the process of young drivers’ braking

Detecting mental states in drivers offers an opportunity to reduce accidents by triggering alerts and signaling the need for rest or renewed focus. Here we used electroencephalography (EEG) to measure brain signals in young drivers operating a driving simulator to detect mental states and predict accidents. We measured reaction times to unexpected hazardous events and correlated them with EEG signals measured from the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortices as well as the central sulcus (corresponding to motor cortex). We found that EEG signals in the relative beta (power in beta (13–30 Hz) relative to total power of the EEG (0.5–30 Hz)), alpha/delta, alpha/theta, beta/delta, beta/theta frequency bands were higher for collisions than successful collision avoidance, and that the key decision-making period is the 2nd second before braking. Importantly, a decision tree classifier trained on these neural signals predicted collision avoidance outcomes. Then based on random forest model, we extracted three critical neural signals (beta/delta_frontal, relative beta_parietal and relative beta_central Sulcus) to classify collision avoidance outcomes. Our findings suggest measuring EEG during driving may provide useful signals for enhancing driver safety.     

The role of signals in two variations of differential‐reinforcement‐of‐low‐rate procedures

Differential‐reinforcement‐of‐low‐rate (DRL) schedules are used to decrease the overall rate of, but not eliminate, a target response. Two variations of DRL, spaced‐responding and full‐session, exist. Preliminary comparative analyses suggest that the two schedules function differently when unsignaled. We compared response rates under these two DRL variations with and without signals. In Experiment 1, five preschool students played a game in which points were earned under DRL schedules. In some sessions, a stimulus signaled when responses would be reinforced (S+) or not reinforced (S‐). In others, only an S‐ was present. Signals (S+/S‐) facilitated and maintained responding in both types of DRL schedules. In Experiment 2, we modified the signals with five different preschoolers. Instead of an S‐ only, we did not present any signals. Elimination and high variability of the target response were observed with the S‐ only and absence of S+/S‐, respectively. Signaled DRL schedules are recommended for application.     

Showing our seams: A reply to Eric Funkhouser

In a recent paper published in this journal, Eric Funkhouser argues that some of our beliefs have the primary function of signaling to others, rather than allowing us to navigate the world. Funkhouser’s case is persuasive. However, his account of beliefs as signals is underinclusive, omitting both beliefs that are signals to the self and less than full-fledged beliefs as signals. The latter set of beliefs, moreover, has a better claim to being considered as constituting a psychological kind in its own right than the set of beliefs Funkhouser identifies.